Contrasting the Natural and Mechanical Worlds in Hathaways Oh, Oh Essa

Contrasting the Natural and Mechanical Worlds in Hathaway's Oh, Oh      Ã‚   The French poet and essayist Louis Aragon, in his Paris Peasant, wrote that "light is meaningful only in relation to darkness, and truth presupposes error--we only exist in terms of this conflict, in the zone where black and white clash" (Aragon 18).   Aragon noted that the world is full of contrasts, and it is through those contrasts that we live and understand who we are and why we are here.   Without an understanding of light, Aragon argues, we cannot understand what darkness really is.   Or, without an awareness as to the concept of truth, one cannot possibly error, for the act cannot be defined.   In William Hathaway's poem "Oh, Oh," the poet uses language, word choices, images, onamatopoeic descriptions, and even the title of the poem to define the intrusion of the mechanical harshness of the world into the carefree land of nature.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The images, content, and focus of the poem change with the intrusion of the train.   Before the protagonist's girl notices the train, the two characters are concerned with the cows, grass, and simply ambling down a country lane.   But, as soon as the train approaches, and as it passes, the characters are no longer concerned with nature.   Rather, they suddenly begin dreaming of "being president" (11) and of "wonderful, faraway places" (14).   This switch from the serenity of nature to the dreams of the world finally ends with the poems last line -- a punishment or at least a warning.   The tranquil and peaceful nature suddenly becomes filled with "fifty Hell's Angels" (17).   But, more than simply motorcycles waiting at a railroad crossing, Hathaway has personified the motorcycles creating the mechanical Hell... ...orld where two universes are defined through their contrast.   Through his world choices, images, and even his title, we are transported to a picturesque country landscape with "moo cows chomping daisies" (2) and "maple dappled summer sunlight" (7).   Standing at a stark contrast to this land is the "lit headlight" (8) of a passing train and "growling [...] Hell's Angels" (17).   Hathaway, through his firm grip of language, has recorded a poem that, through contrasts, gives us an understanding of both the natural and mechanical world in an attempt to show us how we can "look / eagerly to the road ahead" (16-17).       Works Cited Aragon, Louis. Paris Peasant. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1926. Hathaway, William. "Oh, Oh." The Bedford Introduction to   Literature: Leading, Thinking, and Writing. Ed. Michael Meyer. 4th ed. Boston: Bedford, 1996. 593-94.      

Syliva Plath

â€Å"Sylvia Plath's poems open up a world of mental anguish for all to see. † Do you agree with this assessment of her poetry? Write a response supporting your points with the aid of suitable reference to the poems you have studied. I agree with this assessment. Before studying Sylvia Plath's poetry I understood mental anguish only as it's definition, â€Å"sustained, dull, painful emotion. † After studying Plath we see mental anguish really applies to her. We see mental anguish appears as anger in â€Å"Poppies in July† and inadequacy in â€Å"Morning Song†.We see Plath being effected by her mental anguish in all of her poems in nearly all of the emotions she shows us so honestly. It's her honesty that attracts us to her and her suffering of her mental anguish. I first came across Plath's mental anguish in â€Å"Poppies in July† which was inspired by the affair her husband had at the time. We see her mental anguish in her anger in this poem. She u ses fiery imagery and places the color red dominantly in our minds. An example of anger in this poem is when Plath says â€Å"Little poppies, little hell flames†. Plath's reference to the â€Å"Little poppies† as â€Å"hell flames† shows her anger by the imagery it gives.The use of â€Å"Little† suggests that Plath is being condescending towards the poppies. Also the reference to the poppies as â€Å"hell flames† says that only Plath sees the seemingly harmless poppies as being what they truly are. Mental anguish is also seen in frustration as well as anger. Frustration is noticed when Plath says â€Å"Little bloody skirts†. In this quote â€Å"little† is used again adding to the condescending feel in the repetition. Plath also says â€Å"bloody† which shows her anger and frustration. The use of â€Å"bloody† also keeps the colour red in our minds reinforcing her sense of anger.After seeing Plath's intense emotions of an ger and frustration she loses these feelings and becomes numb which shows another side of her mental anguish. She feels nothing, just empty, â€Å"dulling and stilling†. As well as the numbness Plath feels hopeless, â€Å"But colorless, colorless. † After feeling her strong emotions the red we felt is gone as she becomes numb and hopeless. From this we can see Plath's mental anguish in her strong emotions and by the way she portrays her words in such an aggressive way in â€Å"Poppies in July†. â€Å"Finisterre† links in to â€Å"Poppies in July† by it's intense atmosphere.Plath shows her mental anguish in her pessimistic outlook of the place which reminded her of a holiday with her ex-husband who we know from â€Å"Poppies in July† had previously an affair. We see her pessimism where she speaks of the deaths of the sailors and their shipwrecks at the cliffs of Finisterre, â€Å"Whitened by the faces of the drowned.. Leftover soldiers from old messy wars†, here Plath speaks darkly of the soldiers who died at the cliffs. We see that she relates to the soldiers and because of her mental anguish she feels like one of them, â€Å"I walk amongst them, they stuff my mouth with cotton. When they free me I am beaded with tears†.Plath also speaks of the mist, â€Å"souls, rolled in the doom-noise of the sea†. The mist represents the souls of the lost sailors who died when their ships struck the cliffs of Finisterre. She says that the sailors live on in the seas mist on the cliffs. As the poem goes on Plath's mental anguish intensifies as the landscape of Finisterre gets darker and becomes quite scary. Plath describes the landscape as the â€Å"sea exploding†, â€Å"messy wars† and â€Å"no bottom†, which creates a disturbing and very threatening image in our minds. The poem becomes less intense but remains dark as the feeling of despair arises.Plath describes the waves of the sea, †Å"They go up without hope like sighs†. At the end Plath's closing line, â€Å"These are our crepes. Eat them before they blow cold†, emphasizes the darkness of the poem by how trivial it is. The last line is so innocent and light it contrasts with the rest of the poem which is dark and intense. From â€Å"Finisterre† we see mental anguish in the intense pessimistic emotions and how Plath relates to the sailors and feels like one of them. We also see mental anguish in the switch of her tone in the last line which suggests deep mental anguish by the instability of the mood.When reading â€Å"Morning Song†, we see it relates to â€Å"Finisterre† by Plath's pessimism. She doubts her ability of being a mother and doesn't feel bonded to her child. We see Plath's mental anguish when she gives birth to her child and doesn't feel the bond they had from pregnancy. We see that she and her husband, Ted Hughes, feel inadequate, â€Å"we stand around blankly as walls†, we see that they are unsure of what to do with the baby and that the baby becomes the main of everyone as Plath and Hughes are as blank â€Å"as walls†.Plath expands more on how she doesn't feel like the baby's mother, â€Å"I am no more your mother than the cloud that distills a mirror†, we see how this really effects Plath from the negativity of the quote which shows us more of her mental anguish. Also the first line of the poem, â€Å"Love set you going like a fat gold watch†, shows how Plath feels towards the child. The word â€Å"fat† which comes across as a harsh strong word, wouldn't usually be associated with ones child which hints how Plath is really being effected by her mental anguish as another person would use â€Å"chubby† or â€Å"cuddly† which is a kinder description rather than â€Å"fat†.From â€Å"Morning Song† we can conclude that Plath's feeling of inadequacy is a result of mental anguish. Her mental anguish forces her to doubt herself and feel pessimistic on a the day of her child's birth which should be one of the happiest days of her life. Again we see pessimism in â€Å"Black Rook in Rainy Weather† like â€Å"Finisterre† and â€Å"Morning Song†. From the title of â€Å"Black Rook in Rainy Weather† a descending mood is already set. In this poem Plath is looking to be inspired to write poetry, but cannot find anything to be inspired by.Her mental anguish keeps her from being inspired and we see her become hopeless. â€Å"I do not expect a miracle†, here we see Plath has given up on hope and her mental anguish grows. We see the mood deteriorate even more as it goes on. She sets the descending mood when she says â€Å"Leaves fall as they fall†, the leaves from this quote represents the falling mood and the image stays with us as we read on. We see Plath become scared and fearful that because of her mental anguish she won't ever b e inspired to write poetry again. In the poem she is â€Å"trekking stubbornly†, hoping to be inspired but cannot.In â€Å"Black Rook in Rainy Weather† mental anguish plays a big role in Plath's life as it keeps her from finding inspiration which affects Plath very much. We can see she her deteriorate as poetry plays a big part in her life but her mental anguish stops her from writing. As well as seeing poetry being affected in â€Å"Black Rook in Rainy Weather† we see Plath's child being affected in â€Å"Child† which is another big part in Plath's life. In â€Å"Child† we see Plath at her absolute worst. We see how her mental anguish truly worsened and took its toll on her.Plath admits to herself that even though she really wants to, she cannot look after her child the way she should. Plath feels hopeless on a larger scale than ever, â€Å"This dark ceiling without a star†, she feels trapped in her mental anguish as if trapped in a dark ro om with no doors, windows or a way out. Plath wants to give her child the best life possible, â€Å"I want to fill it with color and ducks†, but knows that she cannot because of her â€Å"troublous wringing of hands†, and her mental anguish. In Child she realized that she cannot look after her child because of her mental anguish and feels that the child would be better off without her.From these references to Plath's poetry that I have studied we can conclude that Plath did suffer from mental anguish and her poems are evidence of that. We see how mental anguish effected her emotions and her abilities greatly from feeling like an adequate mother in â€Å"Morning Song† and developing writers block in â€Å"Black Rook in Rainy Weather†. We also see in Plath's poems the rollercoaster of emotions she feels due to mental anguish such as in â€Å"Finisterre† where it begins and progresses with a dark and intense atmosphere but ends erruptly in a light and trivial way. This is how Plath's poems open up the world of mental anguish.

Should College Athletes Be Paid Essay - 1382 Words

Introduction Should College Athletes Be Paid? This question has the propensity to cause much commotion within the various collegiate athletic divisions; e.g., NCAA, BIG 10, MEAC, and CIAA. The complexity involved in flushing out an answer to this question coupled with our status as college students may have played a direct influence in the decision of the group Long Term Money’s (L.T.M.) choice to use this topic as an interest for group assignment. A â€Å"student athlete† is a participant in an organized competitive sport sponsored by the educational institution in which he or she is enrolled. Student athletes must typically balance the roles of being a full-time student and a full-time athlete. Due to educational institutions being colleges, they offer athletic scholarships in various sports; therefore, the proverbial question of which came first, â€Å"the chicken or the egg?† comes to mind. Are the individuals who would be directly affected by such an action, considered s tudents’ firsts, or athletes, and if they are athletes, should be they be considered employees governed by significant employment and labor laws eligible for pay? If they are now employee, how will this affect their pursuit of the educational process, eligibility for scholarships, classes, study, etc.; what changes that must take place for the plan (if granted) to be carried out, would it be consistent across the entire country. So, with so many unanswered questions, we ask again; â€Å"Should College Athletes BeShow MoreRelatedShould College Athletes Be Paid?1578 Words   |  7 PagesAshay Mehta Nou Per 8 Should College Athletes Be Paid? One of the hottest debates in the sports industry is if college athletes should be paid. If you want to pay these athletes, how would the college determine the dollar amount that should be paid? Should the basketball team make more than the football team? Should the the soccer team be paid as well? Cheerleading? Chess team? Should everyone on the team get a salary? What if your college is good at football and your basketball team is awfulRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1398 Words   |  6 Pagesbelieve that college athletes at the highest performing schools are better treated than others. Although they do not get paid, they do receive some benefits for being athletes that other students would not get. One advantage for playing a sport is access to scholarships that some schools reserve for their athletes. Depending on the school and the athlete’s performance, money towards tuition is often given. Only some schools are willing to grant â€Å"full-ride† scholar ships for certain athletes. AccordingRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1289 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the years college sports have been about the love of the game, filled with adrenaline moments. However, the following question still remains: Should college athletes get paid to play sports in college? Seemingly, this debate has been endless, yet the questions have gone unanswered. The National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) plays a vital role in this debate. The NCAA is a billion dollar industry, but yet sees that the athlete should get paid for their hard work and dedicationRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1334 Words   |  6 Pagesrising to the surface is â€Å"Should college athletes be paid?†. This has become a burning question. The NCAA is a multibillion-dollar industry, that makes millions, if not billions, in revenue. Yet it’s still maintains the non-profit status meaning that the industry is not set on making a profit and none of the revenue that is made is distributed to its members, managers, or officers. While most players who play in college sports are under a scholarship, that pays for the college tuition, books, and housingRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1364 Words   |  6 PagesHave you paid attention to all of the news that has been surfacing about collegiate sports lately? It is a big topic now days in the world of sports on weather college athletes should be getting paid to play sports. College athletics have gained great popularity of the past few decades, and have brought schools lots of revenue. A lot of college athletes think they should be getting paid for their services they do for their school. College sports like basketball and football generate over six billionRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1130 Words   |  5 PagesWhat college athlete would not want to be paid to play the sport that he or she loves? The real question is, though, should college athletes be paid fo r their roles in a college’s athletics? They are many points to each side of this recent controversial topic, which is why this has been made into such a hot debate in the past couple of years. As of right now, these athletes are not getting paid, but many of them truly believe that they should. Others believe that they already are being paid throughRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?986 Words   |  4 PagesPaying the College Athlete The college athlete has steadily grown in popularity in the United States over the span of the past decades. Monetarily speaking, this increased publicity has been extremely beneficial for National Athletic Association (NCAA) and all the colleges involved in athletics which has sparked the dispute of whether or not the athlete should be paid for their hard work and dedication on the field and to their school or if the athletic scholarship is more than enough. College athletesRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1239 Words   |  5 PagesLindsey Simmerman Speech 102 T/Th 1:00-2:15 October 25, 2016 Should college athletes be paid to play? Specific Purpose: To persuade the class to agree with my stance on paying college athletes to play sports Thesis: College football is the hours players spend practicing and performing, the number of injuries the players face, and the persona these athletes must portray every day all the while watching their schools, coaches, and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) get all the compensationRead MoreCollege Athletes Should Be Paid1254 Words   |  6 PagesSome college athletic departments are as wealthy as professional sports teams. The NCAA has an average annual revenue of $10.6 billion dollars. College athletes should be paid because of the amount of revenue that they bring to their college. Each individual college should pay its athletes based on how much revenue they bring to the college in which they attend. The colleges that win their Division title, their Conference title, or the National championship, give bonuses to the Head coach of thatRead MoreCollege Athletes Should Not Be Paid1558 Words   |  7 Pagesstudent-athletes participate in a variety of different s ports, and currently they do not receive paychecks for their performances. College athletics have attained an extensive popularity increase among Americans over the past few decades. This has resulted into increased revenues for the National Collegiate Athletic Association [NCAA] and the participating colleges, which has fuelled the debate of whether or not college athletes should collect an income. College athletes should not be paid to play

Othello Character Analysis - 1562 Words

Compare the roles and functions of the female characters in Othello. Othello by William Shakespeare is set in 16th century Renaissance Venice before transitioning to the island of Cyprus. It follows the relationship between the black Venetian general and â€Å"valiant Moor† Othello and his new wife Desdemona, the daughter of an important Venetian senator. Throughout the play, we encounter three main female characters; Cassio’s mistress Bianca, Othello’s wife Desdemona as well as her maid and Iago wife Emilia. All three of these women have very different roles and functions throughout the play; they are all portrayed in very different lights by the playwright. Desdemona is the loving wife who so innocent and naà ¯ve about the world that she†¦show more content†¦He complexly ignores her genuine concern for Cassio and simply abuses her when she is in a moment of emotion vulnerability, a moment when she needs comforted not attacked. Even Emilia, the strong feminist character of the play, treats Bianca with complete contempt during the same incident with Cassio. This is displayed when she states: â€Å"Fie, fie upon thee strumpet!† This clearly highlights again the lack of respect Bianca receives from the other characters in the play, even Emilia who stands up for male and female equality treats her despicably due to her choice of career as a prostitute. She has the function of representing the appalling treatment that women, especially of her career choice, received at the time Othello is set and when it was written in the 17th Century. Iago continues his abuse be even suggesting that Emilia is responsible for Cassio’s injuries. This is demonstrated when he states: â€Å"Gentlemen all, I do suspect this trash [Bianca] to be a party in this injury.† This shows that Iago knows that the other men will be easily convinced of Bianca’s involvement in the attack on Cassio due to the reputation that such women had at the time. Bianca is truly in love with Cassio and acre for him deeply but simply due to her gender and reputation she is suspected of attacking and maimingShow MoreRelatedOthello Character Analysis1555 Words   |  7 Pagesinherent weakness lies in his linguistic capabilities, the very same capabilities Othello uses to win over Desdemona, and to defend himself during his trial in front of the duke. In Smith’s reading, Othello only reverts to his barbarian state when experiencing extreme pressure, as he lacks the other means to express the futility of what is felt, which results in violence. However, when a closer look is taken at what Othello knows about the culture he has tried to hard to assimilate to, it can be seenRead More Character Analysis of Othello Essay1653 Words   |  7 PagesCharacter Analysis of Othello â€Å"Othello† is a tragedy and Othello is a tragic hero. Othello is a general in the service of Venice. He is good, courageous, brave and trustworthy. However he has some weaknesses such as insecurity; he is too open, naà ¯ve, and gullible, Iago plays on his weaknesses which brings about his downfall and he kills himself. This causes the suffering of innocent people like Desdemona, Emilia, Cassio and Roderigo. The audience also feel pity forRead MoreCharacter Analysis Of Othello1235 Words   |  5 PagesOthello is not just about one tragedy but several tragedies of suffering and injustice. The play ends in fatalities and heartbreak from the consequences of jealousy and racism. Othello is a well-respected military man who does not let race stand in the way of earning his reputable status and attention of beautiful Desdemona. But, when the seed of jealous is planted, Othello becomes easily manipulated into believing false accusations because of his own personal insecurities. He becomes a menace toRead MoreOthello Character Analysis1076 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mediterranean Sea of Jealousy Harriet Williams delves into the waters of jealousy and deceit in Oliver Parker’s Othello. Adapting Shakespeare for the screen can be problematic, as Oliver Parker discovered with his 1995 directing debut, Othello. I sat down with Oliver Parker, to discuss the challenge of portraying the actions of a noble Moor who brutally sacrifices his beloved wife over a strategically placed handkerchief. 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This makes resemblances the climb to a climax and the fall, with three main characters, each pushing a boulder up a hill; Othello one of trust, Iago one of manipulation and Roderigo pushing one of foolishness. When they finally reach the top of the hill it beginsRead MoreOthello Character Analysis905 Words   |  4 Pages1. Throughout the drama, â€Å"The Tragedy of Othello†, Iago successfully manipulates Cassio various times. In the writing, Shakespeare creates Iago’s plan to demote Cassio from being Othello’s lieutenant, the role Iago dreamt of, by tricking Cassio to get drunk so that he will raise chaos and result in Cassio being demoted. 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Othello, the Moor of Venice, follows him, his wife Desdemona, Cassio, and the main protagonist Iago through a series of unfortunate events that are supposed to be about jealousy between coveting a boss’s wife and a job promotion. The story turns to Iago when he turns into a commanding force that dishevels every character in the play. This is all doneRead MoreOthello Character Analysis863 Words   |  4 Pagesis being harmful or tending to harm. In the novel Othello, by Shakespeare, character Iago is presented as a villain who doesn’t respect moral beauty, nor the grand nobleness of the mighty souled Othello. Iago betrays Othello knowing how strong Othello’s trust is towards him. As you keep reading the novel you notice the cruelty Iago has for his wife Emilia and how his plan of getting Othello jealous caused the deaths of his own wife Emilia, Othello and Desdemona. Iago is a man full selfishness

Advocating Intellectual Dualism Of Respect For One s...

Advocating Intellectual Dualism of Respect for One’s Conviction As individuals we have a desire to believe in what we may. A person has the right as a human to believe in what he or she may desire. Even though there is an international obligation by law for people to respect one’s right to conviction in whatever he or she may desire, different radical and or rebellious individuals defy that obligation and practice proselytism. Everyone in the world, no matter what race, age, gender, etc. should have a certain limit of respect for one’s conviction itself and also right to conviction in whatever he or she may desire. Each individual has their own preference on what he or she may choose to believe in. And only under some circumstances should an individual disrespect another individual s right to believe, such as an individual should have an obligation to have respect for one’s right to conviction but also there should be an obligation for an individual to not force their convictions upon another, either mentally, emotionally, no r and especially physically. In a world which is quickly, and figuratively, becoming smaller in a sense, individuals may know substantially more about different convictions than past eras. Then again, thus, individuals frequently end up in religious level headed discussions which can or can t end in something great. Respecting all religions is vital to not hurt others convictions. Respect may be described as a constructive feeling of respect orShow MoreRelatedContemporary Issues in Management Accounting211377 Words   |  846 Pagesacademic accounting. Serious in intent, he has striven both to illuminate practice and to provide ways of improving it. Although always appealing to his economic understandings, he has been open to a wide variety of other ideas, recognizing their intellectual strengths and capabilities rather than making artificial distinctions between what is acceptable and what is not. He also has contributed widely to the accounting literature, taking forward the British tradition of economic the orizing in financialRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesrecent years has become ever more fragmented. Organization theory is central to managing, organizing and reflecting on both formal and informal structures, and in this respect you will find this book timely, interesting and valuable. Peter Holdt Christensen, Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark McAuley et al.’s book is thought-provoking, witty and highly relevant for understanding contemporary organizational dilemmas. The book engages in an imaginative way with a wealth of organizational

Ottomans Versus the Safavids Free Essays

Many empires of Middle East civilizations have had strong political and social structures. Two of these empires are the Ottomans and the Safavids. The rise of the Ottomans correlates with the decline of the Roman Empire, which generated the shift in power from a singular Christian European society to a more Islamic influence. We will write a custom essay sample on Ottomans Versus the Safavids or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Ottoman people became powerful in Asia Minor, which collapsed as a Seljuk Turk Kingdom, in the 13th to 14th centuries. The Safavids rose to power following the collapse of the Turkic Empire and invasion of the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries. Although the Safavids had advanced political and social systems, the Ottoman empire had more efficient political and social methods. The Ottomans and the Safavids both had strong features to their political systems. The Ottomans controlled using a strong military, use of weapons, and an extensive bureaucracy. Their empire was known to be geared for warfare. The Ottoman empire had strong governmental power. They ruled in their center of Constantinople, which the Ottomans built defense walls around, aqueducts in, and was where they opened their markets. Absolute power was granted to their Sultans, such as Suleymon the Magnificent. Another unique political factor of the Ottomans was their use of Janissaries. Janissaries were Ottoman infantry divisions that were made up of boys that were legally slaves that were captured and forced to fight. They were extremely strong and beneficial to the Ottomans. The Safavids ruled under the control of a Shah, or emperor. Some of these Shahs were Abbas the Great, Tahmasp I, and Isma’il. A large part of the Safavid political control was their followers who were given the nickname â€Å"Redheads† due to their red headgear. Similar to the Ottomans, the Safavid also had one especially great leader who led the empire to good times and success. This Shah was Abbas The Great, who, like Ottoman janissaries, captured boys from southern Russia for the military and created a grand and powerful army. There were many differences between these empires because the two empires tended to stay separate from each other. When the Ottomans went to advance into the Safavid territory they had to retreat because it was too far away from the supply areas that the Ottomans survived off of. Due to this and other reasons the two seemed the stay separate and just pay attention to other areas and what they could do to better their empires individually. The social life of the two empires were similar in some ways and not at all similar in others. The trade of the Safavid was also more advanced. There were roads built and workshops made during the time of the Safavids. The Ottomans had more religious tolerance than the Safavids did. These two societies for women were very similar. In both of these empires many women in the Islamic heartlands struggled against social restrictions in dress and confinement. In both of the empires, the women were politically weak. They had little to no power over the decisions and politics of the empires. They were meant to be loyal to men and to be veiled. Both of these empires captured boys for their militaries. These men were considered slaves with few social rights, although they did have more then women. Even though the Safavids had many strong ideas on the correct political and social way to run their empire, the Ottoman empire had more efficient and advanced methods. The Ottomans used more warfare than the Safavids. But, the rights of women were the same in both empires. The Ottomans and the Safavids were both strong political empires of their time, with improved and efficient political and social systems. How to cite Ottomans Versus the Safavids, Papers

Ncert free essay sample

You may now be curious to know how psychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used to study behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek to describe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists rely on formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodology that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of research methods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of them cannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental, correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are more frequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiarise you with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data that we collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devices available for the study of psychology, and some important issues related to psychological studies. Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals: description, prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour, and application of knowledge so generated, in an objective manner. Let us try to understand the meaning of these terms. Description : In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours. For example, the researcher may be interested in observing study habits among students. Study habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all your classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, planning your study schedule, studying according to the set schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc. Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions. The researcher needs to describe her/his meaning of study habits. The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding. Prediction : The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour ccurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error. For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects. Later, if you come to know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can predict that the child is likely to get good marks in the examination. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed. Explanation : The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur. For example, what makes some children more attentive in the class? Why 23 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology some children devote less time for study as compared to others? Thus, this goal is concerned with identifying the determinants or antecedent conditions (i. . conditions that led to the particular behaviour) of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship between two variables (objects) or events could be established. Control : If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers t o three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to study to be the same, or you can reduce them or there may be an increase in the study hours. The change brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment in terms of therapy in persons, is a good example of control. Application : The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings. Because of these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concern of psychologists. For example, applications of yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs, which leads to further research. Steps in Conducting Scientific Research Science is not so defined by what it investigates as by how it investigates. The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective, systematic, and testable manner. The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a particular event, both of them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion. For instance, if you and your friend measure the length of a table using the same measuring device, it is likely that both of you would arrive at the same conclusion about its length. The second characteristic of scientific research is that it follows systematic procedure or steps of investigation. It includes the following steps: conceptualisation of a problem, collection of data, drawing conclusions, and revising research conclusions and theory (see Fig. 2. 1). Let us discuss these steps in some detail. (1) Conceptualising a Problem : The process of scientific research begins when a researcher 1 Conceptualising a Problem Selecting a topic for study 2 Collecting Data Participants, methods, tools and procedure Revising Research Conclusions Restating existing hypothesis/ formulating revised or a new theory 3 Drawing Conclusions Using statistical methods Fig. 2. 1 : Steps in Conducting Scientific Enquiry 24 Psychology selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study. This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences. For example, earlier you read that a researcher was interested in observing the study habits of students. For this purpose, s/he may identify different facets of study habits first, and then decide whether s/he is interested in study habits shown in the class or at home. In psychology we study a diverse range of problems related to behaviour and experiences. These problems may be related to (a) understanding our own behaviour (for example, how do I feel and behave when I am in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on our own experiences and behaviour? Why do we forget? ); (b) understanding other individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav more intelligent than Ankur? Why is someone always not able to complete her or his work on time? Can the habit of smoking be controlled? Why do some people suffering from chronic illness not take medicines? ); (c) group influences on individual behaviour (for example, why does Rahim spend more time meeting with people than doing his work? , Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling before a group of persons than when cycling alone? ); (d) group behaviour (for example, why does risk-taking behaviour increase when people are in a group? ), and (e) organisational level (for example, why are some organisations more successful than others? How can an employer increase the motivation of employees? ). The list is long and you will learn about these various facets in subsequent chapters. If you are inquisitive, you can write down a number of problems which you may like to probe. After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier evidence or your observation, you might develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount of time spent by children in viewing violence on television, higher is the degree of aggression displayed by them’. In your research, you shall now try to prove whether the statement is true or false. (2) Collecting Data : The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects: (a) participants in the study, (b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be used in research, and (d) procedure for data collection. Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the participants (or informants) in the study. The participants could be children, adolescents, college students, teachers, managers, clinical patients, industrial workers, or any group of individuals in whom/ where the phenomenon under investigation is prevalent. The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as observation method, experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc. The researcher needs to decide about appropriate tools (for example, interview schedule, observation schedule, questionnaire, etc. ) for data collection. The researcher also decides about how the tools need to be administered to collect data (i. e. individual or group). This is followed by actual collection of data. (3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can be achieved through graphical representations (such as preparation of pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulative frequencies, etc. ) and by the use of different statistical methods. The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly. 4) Revising Research Conclusions : The researcher may have begun the study with a hypothesis that there exists a relationship between viewing violence on television and aggression among children. S/he has to see whether the conclusions support this 25 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or state an alternat ive hypothesis/theory and again test it based on new data and draw conclusions which may be verified by future researchers. Thus, research is a continuous process. Alternative Paradigms of Research Psychologists suggest that human behaviour can and should be studied following the methods adopted by sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology. The key assumption of this view is that human behaviour is predictable, caused by internal and external forces, and can be observed, measured, and controlled. In order to achieve these goals, the discipline of psychology, for larger part of the twentieth century, restricted itself to the study of overt behaviour, i. e. the behaviour that could be observed and measured. It did not focus on personal feelings, experiences, meanings, etc. In recent years, a different method known as interpretive has emerged. It emphasises understanding over explanation and prediction. It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and experience, its method of investigation should be different from the method of investigation of the physical world. This viewpoint emphasises the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and actions and interpret them as they occur in a particular context. Let us take the experiences that may occur in some unique contexts, such as persons experiencing suffering due to external factors (for example, people affected by tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internal factors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc. ). In such types of situations, objective measurement is neither possible nor desirable. Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way based on past experiences and contexts. Therefore, we need to understand the subjective interpretation of the reality. The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without 26 Psychology ttempting to disturb its natural flow. For example, an explorer does not know what s/ he is looking for, how to look for it, and what to expect. Rather, s/he tries to map an uncharted wilderness, with little or no prior knowledge of the area, and her/his main task is to record detailed descriptions of what is found in a particular context. Both scientific and interpretive traditio ns are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of others. What about our own personal experiences and behaviour? As a student of psychology, you may ask yourself the question: why am I feeling sad? Many times you take a pledge that you will control your diet or devote more time to studies. But when it actually comes to eating or studying you forget this. You might be wondering why one does not have control over one’s behaviour. Should psychology not help you in analysing your own experiences, thought processes, and behaviour? It certainly should. The psychological enquiry does aim at understanding the self by reflecting on one’s own experiences and insights. NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA You may want to consider how psychological data are different as compared to other sciences. Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods. The information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their subjective experiences, and mental processes. Data form an important input in psychological enquiry. They in fact approximate the reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc. It should be understood that data are not independent entities. They are located in a context, and are tied to the method and theory that govern the process of data collection. In other words, data are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behaviour occurs. We behave differently when alone than in a group, or at home and in office. You may hesitate to talk in front of your parents and teachers but not when you are with friends. You may have also noticed that not all people behave in exactly the same manner in the same situation. The method of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc. ) used and the characteristics of respondents (such as, individual or group, young or old, male or female, rural or urban, etc. also influence the nature and quality of data. It is possible that when you interview a student, s/he may report behaving in a particular manner in a given situation. But when you go for actual observation you may find just the opposite of what s/he had reported. Another important feature of data is that it does not in itself speak about reality. Inferences have to be made from data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context. In psychology, different types of data or information are collected. Some of these types are : i) Demographic Information : This information generally includes personal information like name, age, gender, birth order, number of siblings, education, occupation, marital status, number of children, locality of residence, caste, religion, parental education, occupation, and family income, etc. ii) Physical Infor mation : This category includes information about ecological conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of economy, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at home, in the neighbourhood, in the school, mode of transportation, etc. ii) Physiological Data : In some studies physical, physiological and psychological data are collected about height, weight, heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the brain measured by Electro-encephalograph (EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time, duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern of dream, amount of salivation, running and jumping rates (in case of an imal studies), etc. , are collected. iv) Psychological Information : Psychological information collected, may relate to such reas as intelligence, personality, interest, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, psychological disorders, illusions, delusions, hallucinations, perceptual judgment, thought processes, consciousness, subjective experiences, etc. The above information could be from the point of view of measurement somewhat crude. Like, in the form of categories (such as high/ low, yes/no), ranks which provide ordinal data, viz. first, second, third, fourth, etc. , or scores (10, 12, 15, 18, 20, etc. ) on scales. We also obtain verbal reports, observation records, personal diaries, field notes, archival data, etc. Such types of infor mation is analysed separately using qualitative methods. You will get some idea about this later in this chapter. SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY In the previous section you read about wide variety of data that we collect in psychological studies. All these varieties of data cannot be collected through a single method of enquiry. Psychologists use a variety of methods like Observation, Experimental, Correlational, Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study to collect data. The aim of this section is to guide you to select the methods which may be appropriate for different research purposes. For example: †¢ You can observe the behaviour of spectators watching a football match. †¢ You can conduct an experiment to see if children taking an examination do better in the classroom in which they had studied the subject or in the examination hall (cause-effect relationship). †¢ You can correlate intelligence with, say, selfesteem (for prediction purposes). †¢ You can survey students’ attitude towards privatisation of education. †¢ You can use psychological tests to find out individual differences. †¢ You can conduct a case study on the development of language in a child. The main characteristics of these methods are described in the following sections. 27 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Observational Method Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behaviour. In our daily life, we remain busy with observing numerous things throughout the day. Many times, we do not take notice of what we are seeing or what we have seen. We see but we do not observe. We remain aware of only a few things that we see daily. Have you experienced such a thing? You may also have experienced that if you carefully observe a person or event for some time, you come to know many interesting things about the person or the event. A scientific observation dif fers from day-to-day observation in many respects. These are : (a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation. For example, you may be interested to know how children studying in Class XI spend their time in school. Two things are possible at this stage. As a researcher, you might think that you have a fairly good idea about what happens in school. You might prepare a list of activities and go to the school with a view to finding out their occurrences. Alternatively, you might think that you do not know what happens in the school and, by your observation you would like to discover it. (b) Recording : While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc. c) Analysis of Data : After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it. It is important to know that making good observations is a skill. A good observer knows what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to observe, when and where the observation 28 Psychology needs to be mad e, in what for m the observation will be recorded, and what methods will be used to analyse the observed behaviour. Types of Observation Observation can be of the following types : (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation : When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings (in the above example, it was a school in which observation was made), it is called naturalistic observation. In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation. This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc. However, many a times you might need to control certain factors that determine behaviour as they are not the focus of your study. For this reason, many of the studies in psychology are conducted in the laboratory. For example, if you read Box 2. 1, you will come to know that smoke could only be introduced in a controlled laboratory situation. This type of observation, called Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually, is obtained in laboratory experiments. (b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation : Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe the person or event from a distance. Two, the observer may become part of the group being observed. In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed. For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class. There are many ways of achieving this goal. You can install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation. The danger in this type of setup is that the very fact that someone Box 2. 1 Example of an Experiment ignored; within four minutes the room contained enough smoke to interfere with vision and breathing. Latane and Darley were primarily interested in knowing how frequently students simply got up and left the room to report the emergency. Most (75 per cent) of the students who were waiting alone reported the smoke, but those reporting in groups were far less. Groups consisting of three naive students reported it only 38 per cent of the time. When the students waited with two other confederates, who were instructed before hand by the researchers to do nothing, only 10 per cent students reported smoke. Two American psychologists, Bibb Latane and John Darley, conducted a study in 1970. In order to participate in this study, the students of Columbia University arrived individually at a laboratory. They were given the impression that they would be interviewed on a certain topic. Each student was sent to a waiting room to complete a preliminary questionnaire. Some of them found two other people already seated in the room, while others sat down alone. Soon after the students had started working on the questionnaire, smoke began filling the room through a wall vent. The smoke could hardly be (an outsider) is sitting and observing may bring a change in the behaviour of students and the teacher. In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed. In participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting her/him as one of the group members. However, the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study. The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. However, the observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event. You are familiar with the popular saying: We see things as we are and not as things are. Because of our biases we may interpret things in a different way than what the participants may actually mean. Therefore, the observer should record the behaviour as it happens and should not interpret the behaviour at the time of observation itself. Activity 2. 1 A few students can observe one period when the psychology teacher is teaching in the class. Note down, in detail, what the teacher does, what the students do, and the entire pattern of interaction between the teacher and the students. Discuss the observations made with other students and teacher. Note the similarities and differences in observation. Experimental Method Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting. It is a carefully regulated procedure in which changes are made in one factor and its effect is studied on another factor, while keeping other related factors constant. In the experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation. The Concept of Variable You read earlier that in the experimental method, a researcher attempts to establish causal relationship between two variables. What is a variable? Any stimulus or event 29 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology which varies, that is, it takes on different values (or changes) and can be measured is a variable. An object by itself is not a variable. But its attributes are. For example, the pen that you use for writing is NOT a variable. But there are varieties of pens available in different shapes, sizes, and colour. All of these are variables. The room in which you are sitting is NOT a variable but its size is as there are rooms of different sizes. The height of the individuals (5 to 6) is another variable. Similarly, people of different races have different colours. Young people have started dyeing their hair in different colours. Thus, colour of hair becomes a variable. Intelligence is a variable (there are people with varying levels of intelligence — high, moderate, low). The presence or absence of persons in the room is a variable as shown in the experiment in Box 2. 1. Thus, the variation can be in the quality or quantity of objects/events. Variables are of many types. We will however focus on independent and dependent variables. Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the researcher in the experiment. It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or note in the study. In the experiment conducted by Latane and Darley (Box 2. 1), the researchers wanted to examine the effect of the presence of other persons on reporting of the smoke. The independent variable was presence or absence of other persons in the room. The variables on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent variable. Dependent variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain. It is expected that change in the dependent variable will ensue from changes in the independent variable. The frequency of reporting of smoke in the above case was the dependent variable. Thus, the independent variable is the cause, and dependent variable the ef fect in any experimental situation. One must remember that independent and dependent variables are interdependent. Neither of them can be defined without the 30 Psychology other. Also, independent variable chosen by the researcher is not the only variable that influences the dependent variable. Any behavioural event contains many variables. It also takes place within a context. Independent and dependent variables are chosen because of the researcher’s theoretical interest. However, there are many other relevant or extraneous variables that influence the dependent variable, but the researcher may not be interested in examining their effects. These extraneous variables need to be controlled in an experiment so that a researcher is able to pin-point the cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables. Experimental and Control Groups Experiments generally involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups. An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent variable manipulation. The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it. For example, in the study by Latane and Darley, there wer e two experimental groups and one control group. As you may have noted, the participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms. In one room no one was present (control group). In the other two rooms, two persons were already seated (experimental groups). Of the two experimental groups, one group was instructed not to do anything when smoke filled in the room. The other group was not given any instructions. After the experimental manipulation had occured the performance of the control group measured in terms of reporting of smoke was compared with that of the experimental group. It was found that the control group participants reported in maximum numbers about the emergency, followed by the first experimental group members where the participants were not given any instructions, and the second experimental group (consisting of onfederates) reported the emergency situation, the least. It should be noted that in an experiment, except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant for both experimental and control groups. One attempts to control all those relevant variables which can influence the dependent variable. For example, the speed with which smoke started entering the rooms, the total amount of smoke in the rooms, physical and other conditions of the rooms were similar in case of all the three groups. The distribution of participants to experimental and control groups was done randomly, a method that ensures that each person has an equal chance of being included in any of the groups. If in one group the experimenter had included only males and in the other group females, the results obtained in the study, could be due to the differences in gender rather than due to experimental manipulation. All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent variable need to be controlled. These are of three major types: organismic variables (such as anxiety, intelligence, personality, etc. ), situational or environmental variables operating at the time of conducting the experiment (such as noise, temperature, humidity), and sequential variables. The sequence related variables assume significance when the participants in experiments are required to be tested in several conditions. Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or practice effects, which may influence the results of the study and make the interpretation of the findings difficult.