Othello Character Analysis - 1562 Words

Compare the roles and functions of the female characters in Othello. Othello by William Shakespeare is set in 16th century Renaissance Venice before transitioning to the island of Cyprus. It follows the relationship between the black Venetian general and â€Å"valiant Moor† Othello and his new wife Desdemona, the daughter of an important Venetian senator. Throughout the play, we encounter three main female characters; Cassio’s mistress Bianca, Othello’s wife Desdemona as well as her maid and Iago wife Emilia. All three of these women have very different roles and functions throughout the play; they are all portrayed in very different lights by the playwright. Desdemona is the loving wife who so innocent and naà ¯ve about the world that she†¦show more content†¦He complexly ignores her genuine concern for Cassio and simply abuses her when she is in a moment of emotion vulnerability, a moment when she needs comforted not attacked. Even Emilia, the strong feminist character of the play, treats Bianca with complete contempt during the same incident with Cassio. This is displayed when she states: â€Å"Fie, fie upon thee strumpet!† This clearly highlights again the lack of respect Bianca receives from the other characters in the play, even Emilia who stands up for male and female equality treats her despicably due to her choice of career as a prostitute. She has the function of representing the appalling treatment that women, especially of her career choice, received at the time Othello is set and when it was written in the 17th Century. Iago continues his abuse be even suggesting that Emilia is responsible for Cassio’s injuries. This is demonstrated when he states: â€Å"Gentlemen all, I do suspect this trash [Bianca] to be a party in this injury.† This shows that Iago knows that the other men will be easily convinced of Bianca’s involvement in the attack on Cassio due to the reputation that such women had at the time. Bianca is truly in love with Cassio and acre for him deeply but simply due to her gender and reputation she is suspected of attacking and maimingShow MoreRelatedOthello Character Analysis1555 Words   |  7 Pagesinherent weakness lies in his linguistic capabilities, the very same capabilities Othello uses to win over Desdemona, and to defend himself during his trial in front of the duke. In Smith’s reading, Othello only reverts to his barbarian state when experiencing extreme pressure, as he lacks the other means to express the futility of what is felt, which results in violence. However, when a closer look is taken at what Othello knows about the culture he has tried to hard to assimilate to, it can be seenRead More Character Analysis of Othello Essay1653 Words   |  7 PagesCharacter Analysis of Othello â€Å"Othello† is a tragedy and Othello is a tragic hero. Othello is a general in the service of Venice. He is good, courageous, brave and trustworthy. However he has some weaknesses such as insecurity; he is too open, naà ¯ve, and gullible, Iago plays on his weaknesses which brings about his downfall and he kills himself. This causes the suffering of innocent people like Desdemona, Emilia, Cassio and Roderigo. The audience also feel pity forRead MoreCharacter Analysis Of Othello1235 Words   |  5 PagesOthello is not just about one tragedy but several tragedies of suffering and injustice. The play ends in fatalities and heartbreak from the consequences of jealousy and racism. Othello is a well-respected military man who does not let race stand in the way of earning his reputable status and attention of beautiful Desdemona. But, when the seed of jealous is planted, Othello becomes easily manipulated into believing false accusations because of his own personal insecurities. He becomes a menace toRead MoreOthello Character Analysis1076 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mediterranean Sea of Jealousy Harriet Williams delves into the waters of jealousy and deceit in Oliver Parker’s Othello. Adapting Shakespeare for the screen can be problematic, as Oliver Parker discovered with his 1995 directing debut, Othello. I sat down with Oliver Parker, to discuss the challenge of portraying the actions of a noble Moor who brutally sacrifices his beloved wife over a strategically placed handkerchief. The characterisation of Iago, whose evil maneuverings create an irrevocableRead MoreOthello Character Analysis Essay801 Words   |  4 Pages12/12/2017 A Character Analysis of Othello in William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Othello† The main character, Othello, in the Shakespearean play Othello, is a man of many strengths, but also a man of great weakness. The play is center around Othello’s downfall despite Shakespeare presenting him as a distinguished and respected soldier. He is also depicted as courageous and loving to his wife Desdemona. However, Othello starts to show his insecurities and weaknesses during the play. Indeed, Othello becomes a belligerentRead MoreCharacter Analysis : Othello 1255 Words   |  6 PagesPavle Burazor Ms. Ã…  kiljević ENG3U1 06-Jan-2015 Character Flaws in Othello The play Othello bears great similarity to that of the Greek myth of Sisyphus, the king of Ephyra; where Sisyphus was sentenced to forever push a boulder up a hill. This makes resemblances the climb to a climax and the fall, with three main characters, each pushing a boulder up a hill; Othello one of trust, Iago one of manipulation and Roderigo pushing one of foolishness. When they finally reach the top of the hill it beginsRead MoreOthello Character Analysis905 Words   |  4 Pages1. Throughout the drama, â€Å"The Tragedy of Othello†, Iago successfully manipulates Cassio various times. In the writing, Shakespeare creates Iago’s plan to demote Cassio from being Othello’s lieutenant, the role Iago dreamt of, by tricking Cassio to get drunk so that he will raise chaos and result in Cassio being demoted. This worked out for Iago when Cassio accepts Iago’s encouraging words and began to drink heavily, this would result in Cassio ultimately fighting and sta bbing Montano in a drunkenRead MoreOthello Character Analysis1241 Words   |  5 PagesOthello, a play written in the setting of Venice City during a period of war between Venice and Turkey in the 16 century is one of the numerous William Shakespeare’s plays. Othello a middle-aged black moor who is also a general in the defense forces marries Desdemona, a white aristocratic lady against the wishes of her father. Their love, however, does not have the happily ever after ending due to the manipulations, deceptions, and scheming of Iago who is driven by revenge and selfish ambitions.Read MoreOthello Character Analysis1378 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Shakespeare’s play â€Å"Othello† like most of his plays is about the premature death of a character who may or may not be considered a tragic hero. Othello, the Moor of Venice, follows him, his wife Desdemona, Cassio, and the main protagonist Iago through a series of unfortunate events that are supposed to be about jealousy between coveting a boss’s wife and a job promotion. The story turns to Iago when he turns into a commanding force that dishevels every character in the play. This is all doneRead MoreOthello Character Analysis863 Words   |  4 Pagesis being harmful or tending to harm. In the novel Othello, by Shakespeare, character Iago is presented as a villain who doesn’t respect moral beauty, nor the grand nobleness of the mighty souled Othello. Iago betrays Othello knowing how strong Othello’s trust is towards him. As you keep reading the novel you notice the cruelty Iago has for his wife Emilia and how his plan of getting Othello jealous caused the deaths of his own wife Emilia, Othello and Desdemona. Iago is a man full selfishness

Advocating Intellectual Dualism Of Respect For One s...

Advocating Intellectual Dualism of Respect for One’s Conviction As individuals we have a desire to believe in what we may. A person has the right as a human to believe in what he or she may desire. Even though there is an international obligation by law for people to respect one’s right to conviction in whatever he or she may desire, different radical and or rebellious individuals defy that obligation and practice proselytism. Everyone in the world, no matter what race, age, gender, etc. should have a certain limit of respect for one’s conviction itself and also right to conviction in whatever he or she may desire. Each individual has their own preference on what he or she may choose to believe in. And only under some circumstances should an individual disrespect another individual s right to believe, such as an individual should have an obligation to have respect for one’s right to conviction but also there should be an obligation for an individual to not force their convictions upon another, either mentally, emotionally, no r and especially physically. In a world which is quickly, and figuratively, becoming smaller in a sense, individuals may know substantially more about different convictions than past eras. Then again, thus, individuals frequently end up in religious level headed discussions which can or can t end in something great. Respecting all religions is vital to not hurt others convictions. Respect may be described as a constructive feeling of respect orShow MoreRelatedContemporary Issues in Management Accounting211377 Words   |  846 Pagesacademic accounting. Serious in intent, he has striven both to illuminate practice and to provide ways of improving it. Although always appealing to his economic understandings, he has been open to a wide variety of other ideas, recognizing their intellectual strengths and capabilities rather than making artificial distinctions between what is acceptable and what is not. He also has contributed widely to the accounting literature, taking forward the British tradition of economic the orizing in financialRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesrecent years has become ever more fragmented. Organization theory is central to managing, organizing and reflecting on both formal and informal structures, and in this respect you will find this book timely, interesting and valuable. Peter Holdt Christensen, Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark McAuley et al.’s book is thought-provoking, witty and highly relevant for understanding contemporary organizational dilemmas. The book engages in an imaginative way with a wealth of organizational

Ottomans Versus the Safavids Free Essays

Many empires of Middle East civilizations have had strong political and social structures. Two of these empires are the Ottomans and the Safavids. The rise of the Ottomans correlates with the decline of the Roman Empire, which generated the shift in power from a singular Christian European society to a more Islamic influence. We will write a custom essay sample on Ottomans Versus the Safavids or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Ottoman people became powerful in Asia Minor, which collapsed as a Seljuk Turk Kingdom, in the 13th to 14th centuries. The Safavids rose to power following the collapse of the Turkic Empire and invasion of the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries. Although the Safavids had advanced political and social systems, the Ottoman empire had more efficient political and social methods. The Ottomans and the Safavids both had strong features to their political systems. The Ottomans controlled using a strong military, use of weapons, and an extensive bureaucracy. Their empire was known to be geared for warfare. The Ottoman empire had strong governmental power. They ruled in their center of Constantinople, which the Ottomans built defense walls around, aqueducts in, and was where they opened their markets. Absolute power was granted to their Sultans, such as Suleymon the Magnificent. Another unique political factor of the Ottomans was their use of Janissaries. Janissaries were Ottoman infantry divisions that were made up of boys that were legally slaves that were captured and forced to fight. They were extremely strong and beneficial to the Ottomans. The Safavids ruled under the control of a Shah, or emperor. Some of these Shahs were Abbas the Great, Tahmasp I, and Isma’il. A large part of the Safavid political control was their followers who were given the nickname â€Å"Redheads† due to their red headgear. Similar to the Ottomans, the Safavid also had one especially great leader who led the empire to good times and success. This Shah was Abbas The Great, who, like Ottoman janissaries, captured boys from southern Russia for the military and created a grand and powerful army. There were many differences between these empires because the two empires tended to stay separate from each other. When the Ottomans went to advance into the Safavid territory they had to retreat because it was too far away from the supply areas that the Ottomans survived off of. Due to this and other reasons the two seemed the stay separate and just pay attention to other areas and what they could do to better their empires individually. The social life of the two empires were similar in some ways and not at all similar in others. The trade of the Safavid was also more advanced. There were roads built and workshops made during the time of the Safavids. The Ottomans had more religious tolerance than the Safavids did. These two societies for women were very similar. In both of these empires many women in the Islamic heartlands struggled against social restrictions in dress and confinement. In both of the empires, the women were politically weak. They had little to no power over the decisions and politics of the empires. They were meant to be loyal to men and to be veiled. Both of these empires captured boys for their militaries. These men were considered slaves with few social rights, although they did have more then women. Even though the Safavids had many strong ideas on the correct political and social way to run their empire, the Ottoman empire had more efficient and advanced methods. The Ottomans used more warfare than the Safavids. But, the rights of women were the same in both empires. The Ottomans and the Safavids were both strong political empires of their time, with improved and efficient political and social systems. How to cite Ottomans Versus the Safavids, Papers

Ncert free essay sample

You may now be curious to know how psychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used to study behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek to describe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists rely on formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodology that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of research methods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of them cannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental, correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are more frequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiarise you with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data that we collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devices available for the study of psychology, and some important issues related to psychological studies. Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals: description, prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour, and application of knowledge so generated, in an objective manner. Let us try to understand the meaning of these terms. Description : In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours. For example, the researcher may be interested in observing study habits among students. Study habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all your classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, planning your study schedule, studying according to the set schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc. Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions. The researcher needs to describe her/his meaning of study habits. The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding. Prediction : The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour ccurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error. For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects. Later, if you come to know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can predict that the child is likely to get good marks in the examination. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed. Explanation : The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur. For example, what makes some children more attentive in the class? Why 23 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology some children devote less time for study as compared to others? Thus, this goal is concerned with identifying the determinants or antecedent conditions (i. . conditions that led to the particular behaviour) of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship between two variables (objects) or events could be established. Control : If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers t o three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to study to be the same, or you can reduce them or there may be an increase in the study hours. The change brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment in terms of therapy in persons, is a good example of control. Application : The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings. Because of these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concern of psychologists. For example, applications of yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs, which leads to further research. Steps in Conducting Scientific Research Science is not so defined by what it investigates as by how it investigates. The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective, systematic, and testable manner. The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a particular event, both of them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion. For instance, if you and your friend measure the length of a table using the same measuring device, it is likely that both of you would arrive at the same conclusion about its length. The second characteristic of scientific research is that it follows systematic procedure or steps of investigation. It includes the following steps: conceptualisation of a problem, collection of data, drawing conclusions, and revising research conclusions and theory (see Fig. 2. 1). Let us discuss these steps in some detail. (1) Conceptualising a Problem : The process of scientific research begins when a researcher 1 Conceptualising a Problem Selecting a topic for study 2 Collecting Data Participants, methods, tools and procedure Revising Research Conclusions Restating existing hypothesis/ formulating revised or a new theory 3 Drawing Conclusions Using statistical methods Fig. 2. 1 : Steps in Conducting Scientific Enquiry 24 Psychology selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study. This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences. For example, earlier you read that a researcher was interested in observing the study habits of students. For this purpose, s/he may identify different facets of study habits first, and then decide whether s/he is interested in study habits shown in the class or at home. In psychology we study a diverse range of problems related to behaviour and experiences. These problems may be related to (a) understanding our own behaviour (for example, how do I feel and behave when I am in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on our own experiences and behaviour? Why do we forget? ); (b) understanding other individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav more intelligent than Ankur? Why is someone always not able to complete her or his work on time? Can the habit of smoking be controlled? Why do some people suffering from chronic illness not take medicines? ); (c) group influences on individual behaviour (for example, why does Rahim spend more time meeting with people than doing his work? , Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling before a group of persons than when cycling alone? ); (d) group behaviour (for example, why does risk-taking behaviour increase when people are in a group? ), and (e) organisational level (for example, why are some organisations more successful than others? How can an employer increase the motivation of employees? ). The list is long and you will learn about these various facets in subsequent chapters. If you are inquisitive, you can write down a number of problems which you may like to probe. After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier evidence or your observation, you might develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount of time spent by children in viewing violence on television, higher is the degree of aggression displayed by them’. In your research, you shall now try to prove whether the statement is true or false. (2) Collecting Data : The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects: (a) participants in the study, (b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be used in research, and (d) procedure for data collection. Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the participants (or informants) in the study. The participants could be children, adolescents, college students, teachers, managers, clinical patients, industrial workers, or any group of individuals in whom/ where the phenomenon under investigation is prevalent. The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as observation method, experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc. The researcher needs to decide about appropriate tools (for example, interview schedule, observation schedule, questionnaire, etc. ) for data collection. The researcher also decides about how the tools need to be administered to collect data (i. e. individual or group). This is followed by actual collection of data. (3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can be achieved through graphical representations (such as preparation of pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulative frequencies, etc. ) and by the use of different statistical methods. The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly. 4) Revising Research Conclusions : The researcher may have begun the study with a hypothesis that there exists a relationship between viewing violence on television and aggression among children. S/he has to see whether the conclusions support this 25 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or state an alternat ive hypothesis/theory and again test it based on new data and draw conclusions which may be verified by future researchers. Thus, research is a continuous process. Alternative Paradigms of Research Psychologists suggest that human behaviour can and should be studied following the methods adopted by sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology. The key assumption of this view is that human behaviour is predictable, caused by internal and external forces, and can be observed, measured, and controlled. In order to achieve these goals, the discipline of psychology, for larger part of the twentieth century, restricted itself to the study of overt behaviour, i. e. the behaviour that could be observed and measured. It did not focus on personal feelings, experiences, meanings, etc. In recent years, a different method known as interpretive has emerged. It emphasises understanding over explanation and prediction. It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and experience, its method of investigation should be different from the method of investigation of the physical world. This viewpoint emphasises the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and actions and interpret them as they occur in a particular context. Let us take the experiences that may occur in some unique contexts, such as persons experiencing suffering due to external factors (for example, people affected by tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internal factors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc. ). In such types of situations, objective measurement is neither possible nor desirable. Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way based on past experiences and contexts. Therefore, we need to understand the subjective interpretation of the reality. The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without 26 Psychology ttempting to disturb its natural flow. For example, an explorer does not know what s/ he is looking for, how to look for it, and what to expect. Rather, s/he tries to map an uncharted wilderness, with little or no prior knowledge of the area, and her/his main task is to record detailed descriptions of what is found in a particular context. Both scientific and interpretive traditio ns are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of others. What about our own personal experiences and behaviour? As a student of psychology, you may ask yourself the question: why am I feeling sad? Many times you take a pledge that you will control your diet or devote more time to studies. But when it actually comes to eating or studying you forget this. You might be wondering why one does not have control over one’s behaviour. Should psychology not help you in analysing your own experiences, thought processes, and behaviour? It certainly should. The psychological enquiry does aim at understanding the self by reflecting on one’s own experiences and insights. NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA You may want to consider how psychological data are different as compared to other sciences. Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods. The information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their subjective experiences, and mental processes. Data form an important input in psychological enquiry. They in fact approximate the reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc. It should be understood that data are not independent entities. They are located in a context, and are tied to the method and theory that govern the process of data collection. In other words, data are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behaviour occurs. We behave differently when alone than in a group, or at home and in office. You may hesitate to talk in front of your parents and teachers but not when you are with friends. You may have also noticed that not all people behave in exactly the same manner in the same situation. The method of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc. ) used and the characteristics of respondents (such as, individual or group, young or old, male or female, rural or urban, etc. also influence the nature and quality of data. It is possible that when you interview a student, s/he may report behaving in a particular manner in a given situation. But when you go for actual observation you may find just the opposite of what s/he had reported. Another important feature of data is that it does not in itself speak about reality. Inferences have to be made from data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context. In psychology, different types of data or information are collected. Some of these types are : i) Demographic Information : This information generally includes personal information like name, age, gender, birth order, number of siblings, education, occupation, marital status, number of children, locality of residence, caste, religion, parental education, occupation, and family income, etc. ii) Physical Infor mation : This category includes information about ecological conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of economy, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at home, in the neighbourhood, in the school, mode of transportation, etc. ii) Physiological Data : In some studies physical, physiological and psychological data are collected about height, weight, heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the brain measured by Electro-encephalograph (EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time, duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern of dream, amount of salivation, running and jumping rates (in case of an imal studies), etc. , are collected. iv) Psychological Information : Psychological information collected, may relate to such reas as intelligence, personality, interest, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, psychological disorders, illusions, delusions, hallucinations, perceptual judgment, thought processes, consciousness, subjective experiences, etc. The above information could be from the point of view of measurement somewhat crude. Like, in the form of categories (such as high/ low, yes/no), ranks which provide ordinal data, viz. first, second, third, fourth, etc. , or scores (10, 12, 15, 18, 20, etc. ) on scales. We also obtain verbal reports, observation records, personal diaries, field notes, archival data, etc. Such types of infor mation is analysed separately using qualitative methods. You will get some idea about this later in this chapter. SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY In the previous section you read about wide variety of data that we collect in psychological studies. All these varieties of data cannot be collected through a single method of enquiry. Psychologists use a variety of methods like Observation, Experimental, Correlational, Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study to collect data. The aim of this section is to guide you to select the methods which may be appropriate for different research purposes. For example: †¢ You can observe the behaviour of spectators watching a football match. †¢ You can conduct an experiment to see if children taking an examination do better in the classroom in which they had studied the subject or in the examination hall (cause-effect relationship). †¢ You can correlate intelligence with, say, selfesteem (for prediction purposes). †¢ You can survey students’ attitude towards privatisation of education. †¢ You can use psychological tests to find out individual differences. †¢ You can conduct a case study on the development of language in a child. The main characteristics of these methods are described in the following sections. 27 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Observational Method Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behaviour. In our daily life, we remain busy with observing numerous things throughout the day. Many times, we do not take notice of what we are seeing or what we have seen. We see but we do not observe. We remain aware of only a few things that we see daily. Have you experienced such a thing? You may also have experienced that if you carefully observe a person or event for some time, you come to know many interesting things about the person or the event. A scientific observation dif fers from day-to-day observation in many respects. These are : (a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation. For example, you may be interested to know how children studying in Class XI spend their time in school. Two things are possible at this stage. As a researcher, you might think that you have a fairly good idea about what happens in school. You might prepare a list of activities and go to the school with a view to finding out their occurrences. Alternatively, you might think that you do not know what happens in the school and, by your observation you would like to discover it. (b) Recording : While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc. c) Analysis of Data : After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it. It is important to know that making good observations is a skill. A good observer knows what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to observe, when and where the observation 28 Psychology needs to be mad e, in what for m the observation will be recorded, and what methods will be used to analyse the observed behaviour. Types of Observation Observation can be of the following types : (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation : When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings (in the above example, it was a school in which observation was made), it is called naturalistic observation. In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation. This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc. However, many a times you might need to control certain factors that determine behaviour as they are not the focus of your study. For this reason, many of the studies in psychology are conducted in the laboratory. For example, if you read Box 2. 1, you will come to know that smoke could only be introduced in a controlled laboratory situation. This type of observation, called Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually, is obtained in laboratory experiments. (b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation : Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe the person or event from a distance. Two, the observer may become part of the group being observed. In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed. For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class. There are many ways of achieving this goal. You can install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation. The danger in this type of setup is that the very fact that someone Box 2. 1 Example of an Experiment ignored; within four minutes the room contained enough smoke to interfere with vision and breathing. Latane and Darley were primarily interested in knowing how frequently students simply got up and left the room to report the emergency. Most (75 per cent) of the students who were waiting alone reported the smoke, but those reporting in groups were far less. Groups consisting of three naive students reported it only 38 per cent of the time. When the students waited with two other confederates, who were instructed before hand by the researchers to do nothing, only 10 per cent students reported smoke. Two American psychologists, Bibb Latane and John Darley, conducted a study in 1970. In order to participate in this study, the students of Columbia University arrived individually at a laboratory. They were given the impression that they would be interviewed on a certain topic. Each student was sent to a waiting room to complete a preliminary questionnaire. Some of them found two other people already seated in the room, while others sat down alone. Soon after the students had started working on the questionnaire, smoke began filling the room through a wall vent. The smoke could hardly be (an outsider) is sitting and observing may bring a change in the behaviour of students and the teacher. In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed. In participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting her/him as one of the group members. However, the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study. The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. However, the observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event. You are familiar with the popular saying: We see things as we are and not as things are. Because of our biases we may interpret things in a different way than what the participants may actually mean. Therefore, the observer should record the behaviour as it happens and should not interpret the behaviour at the time of observation itself. Activity 2. 1 A few students can observe one period when the psychology teacher is teaching in the class. Note down, in detail, what the teacher does, what the students do, and the entire pattern of interaction between the teacher and the students. Discuss the observations made with other students and teacher. Note the similarities and differences in observation. Experimental Method Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting. It is a carefully regulated procedure in which changes are made in one factor and its effect is studied on another factor, while keeping other related factors constant. In the experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation. The Concept of Variable You read earlier that in the experimental method, a researcher attempts to establish causal relationship between two variables. What is a variable? Any stimulus or event 29 Chapter 2 †¢ Methods of Enquiry in Psychology which varies, that is, it takes on different values (or changes) and can be measured is a variable. An object by itself is not a variable. But its attributes are. For example, the pen that you use for writing is NOT a variable. But there are varieties of pens available in different shapes, sizes, and colour. All of these are variables. The room in which you are sitting is NOT a variable but its size is as there are rooms of different sizes. The height of the individuals (5 to 6) is another variable. Similarly, people of different races have different colours. Young people have started dyeing their hair in different colours. Thus, colour of hair becomes a variable. Intelligence is a variable (there are people with varying levels of intelligence — high, moderate, low). The presence or absence of persons in the room is a variable as shown in the experiment in Box 2. 1. Thus, the variation can be in the quality or quantity of objects/events. Variables are of many types. We will however focus on independent and dependent variables. Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the researcher in the experiment. It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or note in the study. In the experiment conducted by Latane and Darley (Box 2. 1), the researchers wanted to examine the effect of the presence of other persons on reporting of the smoke. The independent variable was presence or absence of other persons in the room. The variables on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent variable. Dependent variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain. It is expected that change in the dependent variable will ensue from changes in the independent variable. The frequency of reporting of smoke in the above case was the dependent variable. Thus, the independent variable is the cause, and dependent variable the ef fect in any experimental situation. One must remember that independent and dependent variables are interdependent. Neither of them can be defined without the 30 Psychology other. Also, independent variable chosen by the researcher is not the only variable that influences the dependent variable. Any behavioural event contains many variables. It also takes place within a context. Independent and dependent variables are chosen because of the researcher’s theoretical interest. However, there are many other relevant or extraneous variables that influence the dependent variable, but the researcher may not be interested in examining their effects. These extraneous variables need to be controlled in an experiment so that a researcher is able to pin-point the cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables. Experimental and Control Groups Experiments generally involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups. An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent variable manipulation. The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it. For example, in the study by Latane and Darley, there wer e two experimental groups and one control group. As you may have noted, the participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms. In one room no one was present (control group). In the other two rooms, two persons were already seated (experimental groups). Of the two experimental groups, one group was instructed not to do anything when smoke filled in the room. The other group was not given any instructions. After the experimental manipulation had occured the performance of the control group measured in terms of reporting of smoke was compared with that of the experimental group. It was found that the control group participants reported in maximum numbers about the emergency, followed by the first experimental group members where the participants were not given any instructions, and the second experimental group (consisting of onfederates) reported the emergency situation, the least. It should be noted that in an experiment, except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant for both experimental and control groups. One attempts to control all those relevant variables which can influence the dependent variable. For example, the speed with which smoke started entering the rooms, the total amount of smoke in the rooms, physical and other conditions of the rooms were similar in case of all the three groups. The distribution of participants to experimental and control groups was done randomly, a method that ensures that each person has an equal chance of being included in any of the groups. If in one group the experimenter had included only males and in the other group females, the results obtained in the study, could be due to the differences in gender rather than due to experimental manipulation. All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent variable need to be controlled. These are of three major types: organismic variables (such as anxiety, intelligence, personality, etc. ), situational or environmental variables operating at the time of conducting the experiment (such as noise, temperature, humidity), and sequential variables. The sequence related variables assume significance when the participants in experiments are required to be tested in several conditions. Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or practice effects, which may influence the results of the study and make the interpretation of the findings difficult.

Persuasive Outline Essays - Drug Culture, Drug Policy,

Persuasive Outline Topic: Legalization of Marijuana Audience: Essay General Purpose: To persuade Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that hearing is very valuable and if some precautions are not taken then it may be lost forever. Thesis: I. Introduction A. Attention Getter: Did you know that the American government spends more than 20 billion a year on marijuana prohibition? B. Reason to Listen: Legalizing marijuana will have a positive effect on our country. C. Thesis Statement: Marijuana prohibition is ineefective because of its high cost, infringement of personal liberties, does not help, and has strong potential for medicinal use. people of all ages. D. Credibility Statement: 1. I have done research on the internet and from reading a TIME magazine article on this topic. 2. I have previous background knowledge on this topic E. Preview of Main Points: III. Conclusion A. Review of Main Points: 1. Liberty: people deserve freedom to use marijuana. 2. Cost: keeping marijuana illegal is expensive. 3. Failure: prohibition doesn't help. B. Restate Thesis: : Marijuana prohibition is ineefective because of its high cost, infringement of personal liberties, does not help, and has strong potential for medicinal use. Point 1 - Liberty: From a philosophical point of view, individuals deserve the right to make choices for themselves. Marijuana is far less dangerous than some drugs which are legal, such as alcohol and tobacco Marijuana use does not endanger others and so therefore the government has no reasonable cause to ban its use. SUMMARY:Individuals deserve the right to decide whether or not they should use marijuana. The government should not tell individuals what to do as long as they do not harm others. Point 2 -Cost: keeping marijuana illegal is expensive: It would save our government lots of money. Marijuana users often get locked up in prison and the taxpayers have pay. In addition, if marijuana were legal, the government would be able to collect taxes on it, and would have a lot more money to pay for effective drug education programs and other important causes. SUMMARY:We would have more money to spend on important problems if marijuana were legal. Point 3; Fa ilure: prohibition doesn't help There is no good evidence that prohibition decreases drug use, and there are several theories that suggest prohibition might actually increase drug use One unintended effect of marijuana prohibition is that marijuana is very popular in American high schools. SUMMARY:Prohibition does not work. Education and treatment are better ways to address the drug problem. Alejandro Iglesias Communication January 10th 2017 Persuasive Essay Persuasive Essay: Marijuana Legalization If you are concerned about how high taxes are, you may want to listen to this. Did you know that the American government spends more than 20 billion dollars per year on average on marijuana prohibition alone? This is a startling statistic that exemplifies one of many reasons marijuana prohibition is illogical, and hurting your wallet. In this essay we will dispell some common myths that support marijuana prohibition as well as look at some information that shows that legalization is good step for our country Marijuana prohibition is ineffective because of its high cost, infringement of personal liberties, and does not help our country at all. If you want a country with liberty as a strong virtue, lowered taxes, and reduced societal problems, such crime related violence and overcrowded prisons, vote "yes" on local legalization! The first and most basic reason that marijuana should be legal is that there is no good reason for it not to be legal. From a philosophical point of view, individuals deserve the right to make choices for themselves. The government only has a right to limit those choices if the individual's actions endanger someone else. This does not apply to marijuana, since the individual who chooses to use marijuana does so according to his or her own free will. The government also may have a right to limit individual actions if the actions pose a significant threat to the individual. This argument does not logically apply to marijuana because marijuana is far less dangerous than some drugs which are legal, such as alcohol and tobacco. Individuals deserve the right to decide whether or not they should use marijuana. The government should not tell individuals what to do as long as they do not harm others. The second important reason that marijuana should be legal is that it would save our

Free Essays on Hamlet - Ophelia Character

. Ophelia willingly obliged to her father’s desires. By not thinking for herself and only doing as her father wished, she ruined her chances of love with Hamlet. Hamlet put pressure on Ophelia by expecting her to surpass his mother’s shortcomings and be an epitome of womankind. He searched her innocent face for some sign of loving truth that might restore his faith in her. He took her mute terror for a sign of her guilt and found her to be a false person, like his mother. In his letter to her, he addressed the letter to "the most beautified Ophelia" and he terminated the letter with "I love thee best, O most best, believe it" (II, ii). He used the word "beautified" to display a sincere tribute, and it is apparent he still loves her. His attempts to win her affection are not triumphant. Ophelia is still too much u... Free Essays on Hamlet - Ophelia Character Free Essays on Hamlet - Ophelia Character Ophelia is a beautiful and simple-minded woman, easily molded by the more powerful opinions and desires of others. The thoughts of her father and her brother influenced her the most. The love letters from Hamlet also swayed her opinions and confused her mind. Ophelia wasn’t able to realize herself because of all the pressures exerted on her to be something she’s not. That weakness of mind and will, which permitted her obedience to her father and thus destroyed her hope for Hamlet’s love, finally resulted in her insanity and death. When her father had challenged the honor of Hamlet’s intentions, Ophelia could only reply "I do not know, my lord, what I should think" (III, iii). Used to relying upon her father’s direction and brought up to be obedient, she can only accept her father’s belief, seconded by that of her brother, that Hamlet’s "holy vows" of love were simply designed for her seduction. She was to obey her father’s orders not to permit Hamlet to see her again. Her father also wanted to prove Hamlet’s madness to the king. He used Ophelia as bait so he and the king could listen to Hamlet’s words. Ophelia willingly obliged to her father’s desires. By not thinking for herself and only doing as her father wished, she ruined her chances of love with Hamlet. Hamlet put pressure on Ophelia by expecting her to surpass his mother’s shortcomings and be an epitome of womankind. He searched her innocent face for some sign of loving truth that might restore his faith in her. He took her mute terror for a sign of her guilt and found her to be a false person, like his mother. In his letter to her, he addressed the letter to "the most beautified Ophelia" and he terminated the letter with "I love thee best, O most best, believe it" (II, ii). He used the word "beautified" to display a sincere tribute, and it is apparent he still loves her. His attempts to win her affection are not triumphant. Ophelia is still too much u...

Questions 1 and 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Questions 1 and 2 - Essay Example This includes to the society, government, world, and the  community  (Peter, 1997: p.112). The foremost purpose of the development of a business is not to  attest  to these responsibilities but is the  responsibility  to itself; making profits. Other aspects of the market and non market components also  have  effect  on the  business  and are also in turn affected by the business. Issues such as the population, government regulations, environmental  conservation  and social health  responsibility  are in  effect  of this. NGOs are entities created by individuals or groups within the  society  to deal with  certain  issues in the  society  through advocating, lobbying, electoral support,  judicial  action  and coalition building. In order to deal with such issues, they may even sometimes  conform  to public and  private  politics. This is for the  business  to  correct  its issues and consumers to  attain  their r ights. Such NGOs act as watch dogs for the external components of business such as the environment and people. Through such ways as discussed above they are able to  ascertain  for the fulfillment of the responsibilities that the business has. In the conduction of this, it also acts as a check on the governments effects on the business environment that in turn affect the people. This is through actions such as  harsh  regulations and taxes. ... This includes such aspects as discussed above on environmental, societal, regulatory and employee  consideration. This has culminated the  advent  of altruistic behavior in organizations fearing tainting their image, lobbyism against them and law suits. It can so be concluded that, NGOs do play a particularly crucial role in ensuring adherence to responsibilities by corporations and organizations  thus  positive behavioral actions (Keck, 1998: p.56). 2. Regulation of HRM activities of MNCs via the introduction of Minimum Labor Standards into international agreements on free trade Multinational corporations are currently extremely emerged in the economies of the world. This has brought about the development of super powers, and this  superiority  over other  nation’s economies has its adverse effects. Issues such as  employment  creation, improved living conditions, and industrialization are some of the benefits of such international trade. On the other hand , there are adverse effects such as the  killing  of local industries, social dumping, tax evasions and illegalities within the corporations that may occur (Tarrow, 2005: p.86). As a result of these various effects, it is of the suggestion that the human resource management activities of multinational corporations should be checked through the  introduction  of minimum labor standards into the  international  free trade agreements. Through the  application  of such minimum labor standards, some of the multinational corporations that consider themselves with key investors in the  foreign  economies kept at bay. As, such they lack the opportunity to  threaten  such economies with the rights

Ethical Decision Makin Process Speech or Presentation

Ethical Decision Makin Process - Speech or Presentation Example The father of the child is also a stakeholder because as a father, he needs to provide for his child. But in cases where the father leaves the mother, as in abandonment or a crime like rape, the father does not have any responsibility to the child as his choice. But the major stakeholder of the situation is the mother of the child. The mother is the host of the child. The fetus is a child, and it is quantified as a person for the pro-life movement and as just another organism for the pro-choice movement. The child, according to a New Jersey Superior Court, â€Å"If a fetus is a person, it is a person in very special circumstances – it exists entirely within the body of another much larger person and usually cannot be the object of direct action by another person.† With pregnancy, the mother is put at risk because childbirth is a potentially fatal process. Pregnancy also leeches the mother of her health as the fetus needs a lot of nutrients that it can’t directly get its nutrients from food. The stake is enormous for the society and the mother. The quote, â€Å"It takes a whole village to raise a child† applies here. The society is also responsible for the nurturing of the child in terms of providing the societal needs of a person: social needs, jobs, etc. The mother also has a huge stake when it comes to pregnancy and abortion. The mother, when deciding to have an abortion, would be judged as a murderer in most cases. Most mothers undergo abortion because of reasons that typically pressure the mother into choosing abortion, like her low economic status, unstable job, genetic anomalies, etc. This is because, naturally, if the mother had a lot of resources, she would not undergo abortion. Politically, the mother also has a lot of stake put on it because the debate on the legality and morality of abortion is still widely debated and the legalities of it are still very difficult to grasp, because of the moral and ethical issues associate d with it. Stage Three: The pro-abortion argument is valid because the mother has her own right on her body. It is her own and she should have the right to use her body and decide for it. Her body is being compromised because of the pregnancy. Other arguments for the pro-abortion movement is most conceptions are naturally unsuccessful and are naturally aborted within a month, making abortion natural and therefore, not criminal (because it is natural). Thus, criminalization of abortion implies criminalizing a natural act. However, anti-abortion arguments are also quite valid. They argue that a fetus is a person, and it can feel pain. When that happens, when you intentionally get rid of a person (fetus) it is murder, and therefore should be treated as a crime. The anti-abortion argument can be a bit confusing because the proponents of this argument do not really want to incriminate the mothers who decide to have abortion performed on them. These proponents actually want to incriminate the doctors who have â€Å"brainwashed† the mothers in order to get money from them. However, these are not quite convincing because if indeed it’s a crime, it is indeed murder because it is premeditated. Then again, these pro-lifers do not want extreme methods of punishment performed on the mother. For me, abortion should be legal but it should have conditions in order for it to be performed

Does NY stop and frisk reduce crime Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Does NY stop and frisk reduce crime - Term Paper Example believe that the policy on â€Å"stop and frisk† has been quite effective in terms of reducing crime (Mac Donald, 2012). New York is not the only city that has tried to implement the â€Å"stop and frisk† policy. To make the criminals feel apprehended at the time of government election in 2008, the police department of Philadelphia also implemented the same policy. A couple of years after the Mayor’s election, the incidence of murder was significantly reduced by up to 22% (Lamberth, 2012). Answering the question â€Å"Does NY stop and frisk reduce crime?† is not easy to answer due to the fact that the real factor that could increase or decrease in the crime rate is very complex. Although Philadelphia mentioned that there was a 22% reduction in the number of reported murder, this figure does not necessarily mean that the process of implementing the â€Å"stop and frisk† policy was the root cause behind the decreasing trend in murder cases. In fact, Lamberth (2012) mentioned that the state of Philadelphia was already experiencing a decrease in the number of murder cases since 2006. Up to the present time, there is no scientific evidence that can prove that the process of implementing â€Å"stop and frisk† policy is effective in terms of reducing crime. The fact that the "black pedestrians were stopped at a rate that is 50 percent greater than their representation in the residential census" makes this policy develop racism and prejudism in New York (Neumeister, Hays, & Gross, 2012). Gardiner, S., & Saul, M. (2012, June 20). The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved July 22, 2012, from New Panel Examines Police Tactics : http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303703004577476980483677206.html Lamberth, J. (2012). Retrieved July 22, 2012, from The Effectiveness of Stop and Frisk in the United States:

The Preventing Of Teenage Pregnancy

The Preventing Of Teenage Pregnancy Teenage pregnancy is a term used to address girls between the ages of 13-19 years who become pregnant (UNICEF, 2008).Teenage pregnancy and its resultant health issues are of concern worldwide. In Ghana, for example, according Keller, Hilton Tsumasi-Ankrah (1999), nearly 1/3 of the childbirths recorded in public hospitals occurred to women less than 19 years of age. Meanwhile, Guttmacher (2012) reported that in The United States of America, 750,000 teen pregnancies occur yearly. Health messages are crucial in effecting behavioural change of preventable factors on health (Mokdad et al; 2004). This message is created in an attempt to influence change in behaviour and can as well be used not only for changing adolescents sexual health behaviours, but also for informing and educating a larger population. This essay will address the following: chosen medium, the rational for the message addressing political issues supporting its use, the underpinning health belief model, ways of evaluating the success of the health message, its impact on a wider population and, the influence of nurses, other health professionals and lay persons on health promotion regarding teenage pregnancy. According to Guttmacher (2012), 3,312 girls become pregnant every 24 hours. Also, in every 26 seconds a teenage girl becomes pregnant and a child is born to a teen mother every 56 seconds. It is therefore sensible to explore the extent of teenage pregnancy and its impact. De Vienne, Creveuil Dreyfus (2009), believes that 70,000 teenagers die yearly from obstetrical complications, and 1 million infants born to adolescent mothers die before their first year of life. Although the majority of teenage pregnancies occur in developing countries, one million babies are born annually to teenage mothers in the developed world. According to (Adeyinka, Oladimeji, Adekanbi, 2010), in 2003 42/1000 births in the US were to adolescents. Furthermore, it has been reported that adolescents are at a higher risk for adverse outcomes such as preterm birth, low birth weight, pre-eclampsia, congenital anomalies, uterine rupture and infant death than their older counterparts (Phipps, Blume DeMonner, 2002) . In view of the health problems the world is confronted with as a result of teenage pregnancy, this message is aimed at creating awareness of the various causes and outcomes of teenage pregnancy. It also aims at promoting healthy sexual behaviours, to give the youth the skill and knowledge they need to refuse sex, delaying the onset of sex and to practice safer sex and to reduce the number of conceptions among adolescents (Kirby, 2007).The message will also help debunk certain ideologies and myths about sex education such as those with regards to certain words or body part being unmentionable and the taboos of sex education that influence the human sexuality negatively (Adepoju, 2005). Consequently, advances in communication strategies have changed how individuals access, assess, communicate and use information. Egger et al (1999), stated that health promotions are motivational and informative messages directed to one or more people. The idea of attaining improved health and a better quality of life needs tailoring our educational messages to the particular group of people it is intended for, taken into account the cultural practices of the community as such programmes involve community members who participate to define and solve the problems (Denison et al, 2009) Cultural, religious and traditional issues influence sexual behaviours. Personally, in my area of practice culturally acceptable sex education is given using, local dialects in folk songs, radio drama and role plays avoiding sexually explicit words. This way community values are respected as well as responded to. In recent years there has been a much stronger religious and political focus on the teaching of sex abstinence in schools than in the past years (Butts Rich, 2008). This is to add to the existing knowledge that most religious group preach abstinence before marriage e.g. Islam and Catholics even preach against contraception hence telling the youth to abstain from sex (Citizens Budget Commission, 2012). Contrarily, some social customs induce girls to stay out of school and enter into early sexual relationship were girls are given away in marriage at puberty (Keller et al; 1999). These observations considered a health promotion message using role play will inform the adolescen ts on causes, complications and prevention, of teen pregnancy and motherhood in a non-judgmental approach. Role play therefore, is considered the appropriate medium as it focuses not on acting but on the actions of the characters. It helps in the process of decision making and clarifies judgments and behaviours and lastly it encourages looking beyond the self and into another person in a close and more intimate manner than reading or lectures allows (Rowles and Russo, 2009). Role play is unscripted and a dramatic technique of message delivery that encourages people to improve behaviours that illustrate expected actions of persons in a defined situation (Lowenstein, 2007). In the delivery of such messages ethical issues could arise. Everyone needs to have equal access to care, thus the principle of justice must be considered and the nurse is to do good by providing the information and education they need but she has to seek consent from parents before she could go ahead. In developed nations parents can decide they dont want their wards to sit in for such programs according discussions by fellow students from the UK whereas from experience in Ghana one needs to just tell the head teacher when the nurse is coming. It is important to recognise that in carrying out the principles of beneficence and non maleficence, the question will be how much information is too much? Knowledge of when information given becomes unethical is important. Appropriate information must be presented in an age appropriate manner as there will be potential harm if a wrong and inappropriate message is chosen. An ethical dilemma will arise when a choice has to be made between stand ardised and acceptable programs that are available (Miller et al; 2011) e.g. teaching abstinence as opposed to safer sex practice. Inappropriate programs for a particular age group could easily be misinterpreted and result in the adolescent being misled as she perceives the information differently from the way the educator intended for the message to be received (Miller et al; 2011). Promoting the health and wellbeing of adolescents is a vital part of every society including health workers. Teenagers have been recognised to be at high risk of health-damaging behaviours such as teenage pregnancy (Jacobson Pill, 1997).Similarly, Reeve (2002) in his study revealed that healthcare providers have the potential to strengthen young peoples awareness of appropriate sources of help and information, comprehensive sex education programs and advice on sexual health. He also reported that, the introduction of contraceptive services delivered by nurses, as well as trained teenage advisors or lay persons will be associated with an increase in the number of people attending for advice and contraceptives. Contrary to these assertions Thomson Scott (1991), criticised that sexual health education at school has little or no relationship to the real choices and pressures around sexual health that affects the young women. Furthermore, Denison et al (2009), proposed that every agent of health care including lay persons/peers can partake in communicating the causes and effects of teen pregnancy by mobilising community members to participate in role plays which will illustrate causes, complications and where to get help whether in the community or the hospital setup. According to MARIE STOPES INTERNATIONAL (2012), in 1998 in England, the pregnancy of girls under 18years conception rate fell by 13.3% over 5 years. There has also been a shift in societys views about how best to tackle problems like high teenage pregnancy rates and poor sexual health amongst young people. Increasingly, from a personal perspective parents and professionals will recognise the need to offer teenagers with opportunities to talk about how they feel openly, skills and self-confidence they need to deal with the situations they face regarding sexuality. Also it will raise awareness in the community and at national levels which will in turn help them to strategise and tailor programs to help the youth to understand the way in which sex is, to help them know that relationships portrayed in the media are not always accurate and the appreciation of the challenges and responsibilities of parenthood. This includes supporting them delay early sex, equipping them to stay safe and healthy when they do become sexually active. Parents will play a more positive role in supporting their children on sex and relationship issues (Primarolo Merron, 2010). According to Sexual Offences Act (2003), in UK the age of consent for female and their male counterparts is 16 years. This means men who ha ve sexual intercourse with girls below 16years of age will be prosecuted. Meanwhile there are such clear cut age ranges and laws in Ghana expect for rape cases. Also support from national and international agencies may include development of national training standards on relationships and sexual health to provide a constant framework for local workforce development (Primarolo Merron, 2010). The evaluation of sexual health promotion programs has to be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Reliable and Time bound (Haughey, 2012). Assessments of sex education programmes can vary from changes in knowledge, attitudes and values to those of behavioural change including initiation of sexual activity and pregnancy rates (Fullerton, 2004). Arguably, initiation of sexual activity cannot easily be evaluated if the adolescent does not openly discuss it. Also clear statements given by students about the outcomes of unprotected sex and how those outcomes could be avoided at the end of the session (Vincent, Geiger, Willis, 1994). The aims of sex education are often motivational, relating to lifelong quality of relationships, as well as pregnancy and STI prevention (Fullerton, 2004). Moreover, studies have demonstrated that health decision making is a process in which the individual moves through a series of stages or phases. Interactions with persons or events at each of these stages influence the individuals decisions and subsequent behaviour (Rosenstock, 2005). As a matter of fact, behavioural change is a difficult process which starts with enabling change in personal behaviours of individuals by giving them the knowledge to do so through education (Bellamy, 2004). The health belief model posits that people who perceive themselves as susceptible to negative outcomes are more likely to reduce risky behaviours than those who do not see themselves at risk (Janz Becker, 1984). The model postulates four conditions that predict a health related behaviour; perceived susceptibility, perceived seriousness, perceived benefits and barriers (Janz Becker, 1984). Perceive susceptibility refers to ones perception of the likelihood of contracting a health disease or condition (Witte et al; 1996) or becoming pregnant in this case. It helps individuals to adapt to healthier lifestyles. The more the teenager perceives the outcomes of teenage pregnancy, the more they will try to avoid it. Witte et al (1996) again stated that perceived severity will be the teenagers belief about the implications of a health risk. The perception of severity is often based on the health information given or knowledge about the severity of a condition and difficulties it will create on general wellbeing. If she thinks of it as a serious issue she will try to avoid getting pregnant. Also, the concept of perceived benefits is the teens judgments of the value of the action that will lessen the risk of getting pregnant. Usually, teenagers will practice healthier lifestyles when they believe a new behaviour will lessen their chances of getting pregnant and suffering the consequences (Janz Becker, 1984). This assertion of Janz Becker is not always the case as some will wait to be in that particular situation before they take action. On the other hand, as most teenagers dont change their lifestyles easily, perceived barriers are their own assessment of the difficulties in embracing a new behaviour. Amongst all the perceptions, perceived barriers are most important in defining behavioural change (Janz Becker, 1984) because if they are able to overcome these barriers their behaviours will change. Cues to action are pieces of information which are given out with the intention of triggering decision-making actions. They could be internal or external e.g. informational flyers, advertisements on television or internal symptoms of an illness (Witte, 1996). Lastly self efficacy, measures the degree of the reaction taken to prevent pregnancy and that they are able to perform the recommended reaction to avert the risk. Teen pregnancy and motherhood is a serious problem affecting adolescents which can causes health and social problems. With empowering the youth through education, teen pregnancies and its related problems can be prevented. From a personal view point, it will be acceptable to say that proven programmatic answers to this dilemma are likely to be dissatisfactory. The point is not that sexuality education and contraception education cannot be helpful, but that without more help from the society at large, their impact may be small. On the contrary, an intervention that starts by affecting behaviour in a self-effacing way may ultimately generate changes in behaviours. Behaviour is contagious and teens, in particular, are extremely influenced by what their friends do or say. This suggests that programs are not to be judged on the basis of their immediate effects only but also on their peer culture reorientation potential.

Precursors to Suicide in Life and Works of Sylvia Plath and Sarah Kane

Precursors to Suicide in Life and Works of Sylvia Plath and Sarah Kane Introduction We are going to describe factors associated with the suicidal process in lives of Sarah Kane and Sylvia Plath as reflected in the late works of these two female authors who committed suicide when they were 27 and 30 years old. Antoon Leenaars and Susanne Wenckstern (1998) have written: ?Suicide notes are probably the ultrapersonal documents. They are the unsolicited productions of the suicidal person, usually written minutes before the suicidal death.? Literary works of suicidal authors written in the time before their death can be read as such suicide notes. It is possible that the suicidal process set off before Sarah Kane started to write her best play and before Sylvia Plath wrote the best poems of her life. They might have been either created in an attempt to set the suicidal process back (Viewegh, 1996) or as a pure manifestation of this suicidal process which might have brought about sudden burst of strong internal creative powers. In both cases we might take these works as suicide notes and poetic accounts on a dramatic search for the meaning of life and existence. Nevertheless no suicide note is able to give a complete account of the suicidal mind. Such a note must be put in the context of the individual life as Shneidman said (1980) and in the context of broad theoretical formulations about suicide and personality functioning in general as stated by Leenaars (1988) if one wants to understand the motives lying behind. 1 Risk Factors for Suicide Very concise description of risk factors for suicide has been offered by Leenaars (1988) and is based on studies of 10 theories of suicide. There are 5 subcategories included under the intr... ... Leenaars, A. A. & Wenckstern, S. (1998). Sylvia Plath: A protocol analysis of her last poems. Death Studies, October 1, 1998, Vol. 22, Issue 7, ISSN: 0748-1187. Retrieved May 6, 2005 from Academic Search Premier Database. Plath, A. & Plath, S. (Eds.) (1975). Letters Home. London: Faber and Faber. Shneidman, E. S. (1980). Voices of death. New York: Harper & Row. Shneidman, E. S. (1982). The suicidal logic of Cesare Pavese. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 10, 547-563. Stirman, S. W. & Pennebaker, J. W. (2001): Word Use in the Poetry of Suicidal and Nonsuicidal Poets. Psychosomatic Medicine. 63, p. 517-522 ï ¿ ½ 2001 American Psychosomatic Society, Retrieved December 20, 2004 from http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/content/full/63/4/517 Viewegh, J. (1996). Sebevra?da a literatura (Suicide and literature). Brno: Nakladatelstvï ¿ ½ Tomï ¿ ½?e Jane?ka 10

Role of Ngos in National Development and Security

THE ROLE OF NGO’S IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECURITY By ( IBRAHIM TUDU) Chairman, Zamfara State Coaltion of NGOs, Nigeria email: [email  protected] com INTRODUCTION: The term NGO has now become a popular in academic, policy and international cycles. The letters N. G. O is an abbreviation, which stands for Non-Governmental Organization, literally speaking because they are not formed by the government, not controlled by Government bureaucracy and they do not participate in decision or policy making of Government(s). SOME HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES For a better understanding of the present topic, one needs to have an insight into the history or evolution of NGOs. Community based organization’s evolution dates back decades ago. Some of the then existing voluntary organizations were very small, inexperienced and generally localized and some exist with different names, such as societies and clubs committees which are mostly friends, relations, professional groups, etc. Generally, they lack some relevant organizational capacities, funding and networking. Some of the oldest voluntary organizations established were the Anti-Slave Trade Society established in the year 1840. Another old and still surviving NGO established for humanitarian services was the International Committee for the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, an organization that out dates even the United Nations. It was established in the year 1863. It has played a major role in offering humanitarian services in major wars and conflicts. NGOs globally are developed from the need to coordinate some specifically defined activities and objectives. Beginning from 19th century, Mosques, Churches, Professional, Scientific and Cultural groups formed all kinds of associations that execute the work of NGOs. In the 20th century, specialized bodies started to spring up in such areas like sports, businesses and communications. This paper would now try to fully define the meaning of NGO and also go further to answer some questions on how, why and the need for NGOs, before finally addressing the roles they play in the national development and security which is the topic this paper is designed to address. What is an NGO? Let me begin by asking us this question. What does the term NGO stands for or what is the meaning of an NGO? Even though there is no generally or universally restricted definition of NGO, however let us bring in some definitions by some institutions and international bodies in order to explain more the meaning or the message behind the term NGO. To enable us capture the idea behind the NGOs, four of these definitions would suffice; i. The British Library, for example agrees that NGOs has to do with voluntary participation by average citizen in the affairs of his environment or communities. This is so because there is no imposed membership, control by Government or State. They are now often called Private Voluntary Organizations (PVO). ii. The World Bank, defines NGOs as private organizations that pursue basic social services, or undertake community development services. They in whole or in part depend on charitable donations and offer voluntary services. iii. The United Nations, the present name N. G. O was first coined by the U. N in the year 1945. This was mainly to distinguish them from States and Governments. iv. The International Community generally adopts another name for NGO’s, which is â€Å"Civil Society Organizations†. This is generally because they are being formed by the citizen for the good of society and are generally not for profit. NGOs are known to be legitimately engaged in activities that touch on the lives of their communities. These include economic, social, humanitarian, security and philanthropy. They are nevertheless broad in names and activities depending on their objectives, focus and mode of operation. These include associations, societies, forums, foundations, networks, charities, organizations, trusts, centers, clubs, committees, etc. Why Are NGOs Established? Let us try to address the question or give answers to the reasons on why NGOs are established by communities. The belief that not all areas, activities, fields, needs and services of the communities are perfectly and completely offered or addressed by Governments however highly advanced or principled. This makes the establishment of NGOs absolutely necessary, complimentary and very encouraging in the history and developmental need of any nation. It is generally agreed that human capital is another form of economic capital. Therefore, the vast resources and capacities accumulated by the voluntary, non-profit organizations could not be disregarded. The zeal to serve ones community and offer services to the poor and the needy or participate in developmental activities or other humanitarian and relief services are some of the motivating factors that give rise to the establishment of NGOs. Recently, the activities of NGOs are on the rise, they are at the forefront in the fight for good governance, accountability and transparency by public office holders. So many factors and challenges have caused like minded eople to unite and forge common front on some issues of the day ranging from the quest for offering social services to the people, to offering relief, humanitarian and emergency services. So also the issue of globalization, environment and anti war issues has united communities. Between 1945 to 1995, the number of NGOs has increased astronomically. Currently, even in the absence of accurate data of the number of NGOs worldwide, one can safely say that their proliferation is directly associated with the coming of new technology, communication and the Internet. On the average, a new NGOs is created somewhere in the world every day. Generally, it is our opinion that the number of CBO and NGOs in a particular locality, state or nation providing non-profit services in a very healthy development which should not be over looked by any state or government. More recently, there has been growing interest in the activities of NGOs not only in Nigeria but worldwide. How Does NGOs Operate? Worldwide, the activities and contribution of NGOs to societies through their participation and providing inexpensive, value driven and usually completely free services to communities has been acknowledged and is increasingly coming to the lime light. Even though, NGOs operate in different capacities and with numerous objectives, motivation and focus. Generally they work as pressure groups, watchdogs and developmental organizations. The United Nations for example has found it very necessary to deal with NGOs. In fact, the term NGO as earlier explained was coined by the U. N. after the WW II. Since then it has extended the ways and principles of it engagement with the NGOs by expanding and improving the way it works with them. The British and American Governments have also created a variety of regional assemblies and grouping to try to bring more people and communities into ctive participation in democratization and other major campaigns. The International Community uses numerous names to describe NGOs. These names include: Non- partisan organizations, not-for-profit, Watchdogs, Pressure Groups, Voluntary Sector, Complimentary Institutions, Stakeholders, Non State Actors, Bridge Builders, Development Partners, Grassroots Organizati ons, Community Based Organizations, Private Voluntary Organizations, Peoples Organization, Value Driven Organizations, Third Sector of the Economy, etc. The world of NGOs has continued to widen and assume more dimension and relevance today. LEGAL STATUS OF NGOs The right to establish, create or form an NGO is a fundamental human right that belong to the individuals or group of people and are not bestowed on the States or Governments. These rights are derived from the fundamental rights of an individual, group or community to free speech and association that exist in almost all civilized constitutions. However, even though NGOs have right to exist and operate as informal organizations, a crucial part of the enabling environment for NGOs requires them to incorporate and acquire formal or legal personality or status this would in turn protect the principles of such NGOs from personal liability for the affairs of the organization, such as contracts, debts or legal action. In Nigeria, for example, Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC) is the body charged with the power to register NGOs that desire to operate in Nigeria. CAC derives its powers from the Companies and Allied Matters Decree No. I part C, which took effect from 2nd January 1990. So also States and Local Governments have departments of Social and Community Development and that of Youth and Sports Ministries overseeing the registration of NGOs. AN IDEAL NGO It is expected that every organization should meet some certain requirements in order to engage in legitimate activities as opposed to criminal and illegitimate groups. An ideal NGO is expected to among other things abide by the following: – †¢ To be registered with relevant authorities at the Local, State or National levels depending on the level of operation. To have a well articulated constitution or articles of association or charter. †¢ To have an executive body, and an open and simple criteria for membership or volunteers. †¢ To have an office, correspondence addresses like; post office box, telephone, email, fax, etc. †¢ To have clear and well-defined mission, vision or aims and objectives. †¢ To engage in programmes a nd activities that helped the community. †¢ To have a clean, transparent and verifiable sources of funds for their activities. †¢ To have a leadership, organogram and well established channel of communication. To have very good rappour with their community, other organizations and relevant authorities. CATEGORIES OF NGOs Even though their activities are sometimes similar and aimed at development, NGOs differ in so many ways and aspects. They can be safely categorized into various groupings. They can be CBOs, FBOs, and they can also be INGOs. The World Bank for example classified NGOs into 3 main groups, they are: – a. Community Based organizations (CBO); these are NGOs that are based or directly in touch with the Local communities and usually set up by the communities themselves, e. g. CODEC, CDF, PAMUHE in Zamfara State. b. State NGOs (SNGO) & National NGOs (NNGO); these organizations as the name implies operate as State or at national level in their countries of origin e. g. GLONIJ, FOMWAN, PEDO in Zamfara State etc c. International (INGOs); there are typically in developed countries and they usually carryout their activities in more than one country e. g. CARE, OXFAM, etc. Some of the other categories also include; d. BINGO; Business Oriented International NGOs. e. RINGO; Religious International NGOs. f. FBNGO; Faith Based NGOs. g. ENGO; Environmental NGOs. . GONGO; Government Operated NGOs. i. QUANGO; Quasi –autonomous NGOs. Further sub-divisions are also possible; Active NGOs; these are the ones that strive to address the root causes of societal problems they stage programmes that even attract the media. They are either advocacy, service or development oriented. In active NGOs; These are the less functional ones that have less or no funding whatsoever b ut attend conferences, seminars and workshops. Brief Case NGOs; These are usually one-man show often described as â€Å"Portfolio Type† or a collection of â€Å"Family Business Groups†. Umbrella Organizations for NGOs exist with names like; Networks; These are groups of NGOs from different areas, states or regions that comes from different backgrounds but working in the same field but not necessary the same focus and mission. e. g Cisnan Coalitions; these are umbrella organizations that consist of different NGOs working in different fields of human endevour. They are of differing focus, objectives and missions but they are united for the betterment of their causes and social welfare. e. g Zacons Who fund NGOs? There are a number of funding sources or bodies working with different NGOs. They may be categorizes in the following; 1. Self- Funding; Registration fees, Dues, Levies, Donations, Investments Returns, etc. 2. Local, State or Federal Governments; Naca, Zamsaca, etc 3. Foreign Governments; Like the U. S (USAID), U. K (DFID), E. U, etc. 4. UN Agencies; UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, UNIFEM, etc 5. International NGOs; Global Fund, Oxfam, AAIN, etc 6. Philanthropies/Foundations; Ford Foundation, Rock feller Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, Heinrich Foundation, Melinda Gates Foundation, Packard Foundation, Macarthur Foundation, etc THE ROLE OF NGOs IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT After casting a picture of what NGOs are by showing how they operate and why they are established, we can now safely delve into their contributions national development. NGOs as non state actors, have played and are stilling playing very important and major role in initiating and supporting various Local, National and International developmental activities. To make sense out of this, one may digress a little to show how NGOs are also playing their role internationally. For example concerted campaigns, enormous pressure and actions by States together with NGOs led to the establishment of the International Court of Justice. Globally, NGOs have impacted direct and meaningful involvement in shaping the international agenda at the United Nations and regional levels through remarkable negotiations. NGOs are found in international and regional committees. They also contributed in the MDG and NEEDs programme. They are also engaged as partners in United Nations Agencies such as the UNEP, UNFAO, UNDP, UNCTAP and UNCHR. But since this is outside the scope of this paper there is no need to go further. NOW WHAT IS THE MEANING OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT? To understand the contribution of NGOs to National Development especially in Nigeria, we need to acquaint ourselves with the meaning of the term National Development. Development of any nation is defined by the advanced learners Dictionary as that nation’s process of changing and evolving pattern of becoming larger, stronger, more successful or more advanced. ‘The Roles of Civil Society and Citizen organizations (in national development) are becoming better understood around the world,† says Martin Sime, Chief Executive Officer the Scottish Council of Voluntary Organizations. NGOs has been over the past decade ahead of government on many key issues of our times,† said Mr. Naidoo an Executive social worker. Another separate testimony by Mr. Mario â€Å"Whether we take the issue of land mines, environment, HIV/AIDS, global poverty agenda, gender equity, civil society’s impact is quite significant and remarkable in terms of facing difficult challenges of our time and putting forth solutions that are more bold, more courageous and more innovative than many who are constrained by their political office† says Mario Lubetkin, Director General of the Inter Press Service (IPS). Even though NGOs as oppose to Governments, are well outside decision-making machinery of Governments, they have proved as dependable partners in the formulation of policies and programmes whenever consulted by Governments. Let us now list some areas of contribution by NGOs. 1. NGOs have contributed immensely in monitoring and exposing bad governance, corruption, child trafficking, etc. 2. They have also served as think tanks and resource base for training, capacity, research and advocacy, project planning and execution. 3. Many NGOs have gained the trust of people and Governments, so the Governments machinery has begun to engage and dialogue with them thereby tapping their expertise and skills. NGOs are now no longer considered adversaries but partners in progress. 4. NGOs have had significant progress in raising public awareness on almost any issue that arose. This they do through increased campaigns, sensitization, information collection and data analysis. 5. They have forged ties and engaged in fruitful partnership and networking among themselves. This has boosted cooperation, unity and more developmental services they render to the people. . They have played significant role in shaping the debate for sustainable development. They execute concrete projects and advocate for the formal participation of women in division making. 7. NGOs are contributing immensely in the attainment of environmental justice through protection of social, economic and environmental rights. 8. They have contributed in MDG, NEEDs, Micro credit scheme and poverty alleviation. NGOs in Zamfara State that are affiliated and members of the coalition have contributed to the development of Zamfara States in many ways and at different levels. Currently, NGOs have employed a number of youth both male and female as full time development staff and some on office routine. They can also boost of the largest collection of humanitarian volunteers from communities, civil services and the business sector. NGOs in the state have executed a lot of projects totaling more than 30 millions naira in the past 3 years alone. More then 60 projects in the area of education, health and good governance were executed in Zamfara State. NGOs have exalted themselves in areas of exchange of ideas and information. They have engaged in a number of capacity building workshops and other International Forums. NGOs have attended and represented Zamfara State in a number of seminars, workshops and conferences. In the past few years NGOs in Zamfara can boost of accomplishing the following as their own contribution to state and national development; 1. Enhancing Girls Basic Education in Communities LGAs in Zamfara State. 2. Peer Education, Kasaurara II Project in 12 Northern States. 3. Self help Community Development Projects, 4. Construction of Culverts and Drainages, 5. Participation in Environmental Sanitation Programme. 6. Quiz competition on Radio and T. V among Youth in the State. 7. Sensitization and Awareness on the Annual Hajj exercise. 8. Sensitization workshops on Reproductive Health issues. 9. Organizing of Leadership training courses. 10. Construction of Community Primary School in Tudun Wada, 11. Renovation of Boreholes. 12. Quarterly Training of Trainers Programme on HIV/AIDS. 13. Publication of Books and Journals for Adult and Children 14. Monitoring of Census and Election. 15. Youth and Women Skills training in Zamfara 16. Provision of Care and Support for PLHVA 17. Provision of Emergency and First Aid services. 18. Research Projects on Child Begging and offering solution 19. Sensitization workshop on HIV to opinion leaders. 20. Public Enlightenment of Women on current issues 21. Provision of Public Pumps at U/Zabarma, Gusau 22. Organization of Inter-Secondary Schools Debate 23. Participation in Tree Planting Campaign. 24. Staging of Conflict mitigation workshops 25. Provision of HIV Resource Centre. 26. Sensitization on Affirmative Action for Women 27. Provision of Micro Credit to Women 28. Budget Tracking Workshops 29. Launching of VCT centers and Hotlines in the State In Zamfara State NGOs can be found in different communities set up to work at Local, State and National Levels. This is in recognition of the role they can play in giving useful advises, constructive criticism and sound policy decisions. WHAT ARE THE ROLES PLAYED BY NGOs IN NATIONAL SECURITY Again let us address the term and notion of security and national security before indicating the role the NGOs play in ensuring national Security. In a summary National Security as defined by Wikipedia, the internet encyclopedia refers to the public policy of ensuring the survival and integrity of the nation state through the use of economic, social and military power and the exercise of diplomacy in both peace and war time. The strategy used or employed by the states to protect national security is numerous. They include the use of diplomacy to rally allies and isolate threats; marshalling economic power to facilitate or compel cooperation of the enemy. Others measures include the use of intelligence and network of agents to depend, defeat or avoid threats and espionage and protect classified information. However, national security does entirely and solely depend on the military power or population of a nation but the social well being of the people of a nation. The components that make up national security include the following: – i. Food security ii. Economic security iii. Political security iv. Social security As indicated above, the notion of national security does not only mean the enforcement of laws and security operations. National security is a collective and relative name. It does not only means enforcement of fear or restoration of Security, but the elimination of all sources of insecurity, which must include the provision of all of the above components. The NGOs helped in no small measure in the maintenance of each of the three mentioned security components. Let us try and list them in this order; i. Food Security: NGO’s most visible role and contribution is in the fight against hunger, unemployment and poverty. They perform so well in these areas by demanding for good policies by governments on the issues of tackling poverty. They help in getting food to the hungry and the needy through humanitarian services, philanthropy, charity and endowments. â€Å"A hungry man they say is indeed an angry man and conversely a source of insecurity†. ii. Economic Security: Through the pursuance of good economic policies by governments the NGOs press for economic reforms and better economic measure to ensure a secure economy that buttress businesses and other economic activities. NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for accountability, transparency and equity by public and private office holders. iii. Political Security: In the public and leadership arena, NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for good governance, democracy and human development. NGOs engage leaders and public office holders by ensuring public based legislation, participation and equal opportunities are provided. v. Social Security: This is one of the most and very important components of national security. Ensuring social cohesion, integration, participation, efficient and adequate distribution of social services and amenities. NGOs also help in the fight for equal opportunities and employment that are integral to their activities not only nationally but also globally. On the health sector the NGOs has reacted to HIV/AIDs, Malaria and Tuberculosis with unprecedented attention and dispatch it deserves. NGOs IN WAR AND PEACE As generally believed, peace is not only the absence of war but a state of maximum security free from all forms of fear. Conversely, there is no security without peace. NGOs offer their services in peacetime and also offer humanitarian services in events of emergencies such as epidemics, earthquakes and other natural or man made disasters. NGOs contribute in no small measure in times of peace and security. This becomes evidently clear in the sense that NGOs themselves help in bridging gaps, resolution of conflicts and public enlightenment on contentious issues. Even though there some NGOs whose formation and activities draws some security concerns, one may hasten to say that those NGOs only strive as a result of inadequate security and failure of governments to provide checks and balances which fuels their existence and increase their activities. These â€Å"NGOs† may include extreme pressure groups, armed freedom fighters, criminal gangs, rebels, cultist, syndicates, cartels, ethnic and racial movements, nationalist fighters, etc. Therefore these organizations should be carefully separated from developmental and progressive NGOs. Even though the above voluntary and community organizations may be initially established or formed by a law abiding community and legally, but later their activities may draw some special concerns, fears and security threats. Generally a good NGO should contribute and argument the effort of their communities, localities, states and nation in their chosen areas of operations. NGOs IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND SECURITY There are numerous NGOs that are found in uniform or out of uniform that help security services in the maintenance of law and order. They participate in confronting emergencies by providing assistants and First Aid support. . g. Red Cross, Red Crescent, Man ‘O’ War Bay, Civil Defense, Volunteer Forces, Scouts, Girls Guide, Boys Brigades, etc. CONCLUSION: One painful fact still remains that security networks and by extension their Governments have not yet recognized and appreciated the huge reserve of knowledge, capacity and resources resident within the voluntary sector that can contribute to their policies and programmes towards National development. On their part, some NGOs underestimated their relevance and the role they can play in National Development and Security through engaging Governments at all levels on all issues. Criticisms of NGOs from some quarters that are either not direct recipient of their services or are ignorant of the role they are playing in national development also abound. They are being called all sorts of names that include; they are self appointed, undemocratic, answer to no constituency, encroaches on National and International laws, long arm of their sponsoring partners, resembles multinationals, chase disasters, proponents of western values, aggressive organizations, extremist, etc. Whatever the criticism, it is evidently clear that nationally and Internationally, political and economic developments has risen with the rise and rise of NGOs, Civil Organizations has become a vital link and force for social change. They put people first before profit; they put food first before reserve or politicking. The bottom line is that, the work of NGOs which is the provision of socio-economic needs of the people as well as caring for their well being are also the key elements in any development and security effort of any nation. The security of people must starts from meeting their human needs. This implies that social amenities such as shelter, education, health and other infrastructural materials and the elimination of economic inequality are part of security. All of the above cannot be secured unless and until we have good governance, democracy, peace, security and sustainable national development. Fortunately, these are exactly what the NGOs are fighting for and were known for globally. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. The Author of the paper holds HND in Printing Technology from Kaduna Polytechnic in 1989. He worked in the private sector and was one time Managing Director Nasiha Professional Printers, Sokoto and Zamfara States. He was also the Press Manager, Mazan – Fara Printing Press, Gusau. He worked in the public sector and was the Chief Superintendent of Press, Survey Division, Ministry of Lands and Survey, Zamfara State. He also served NGOs in different capacities: Executive Member, Muslim Students Society, Kaduna Polytechnic Branch, Secretary General, Joint Youth Islamic Organizations, Zamfara State. Currently he is the Secretary General, Global Network for Islamic Justice, Zamfara State, Executive Director, Partnership for Muslim Health, Zamfara State, Chairman, Coalition of Non-Governmental Organizations, Zamfara State, President, Association of Nigeria Authors, Zamfara State Chapter. He has attended so many seminars and conferences both at national and international levels. The Author is currently employed with the Zamfara State Zakat and Endowment Board, in the position of Director Zakat Collection. SOME ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS USED AAN-Action Aid Nigeria CSACEFA-Civil Society Action Coalition on Education for All. CISHNAN-Civil Society Network on HIV/AIDS. DFID-Department for International Development. SFH-Society for Family Health SACA-State Action Committee on Aids USAID-United State Agency for International Development CODEC-Community Development Centre NACA-National Action Committee on Aids CISCOPE-Civil Society Action Coalition on Poverty Eradication GLONIJ-Global Network For Islamic Justice UNDP-United Nations Development Programme NEEDS-National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy IDASA-Institute of Democracy South Africa. ZASCON-Zamfara State Coalition of NGO’s AAIN-Action Aid International SEEDS-State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy TMG-Transition Monitoring Group PLWHA-People Living with HIV/AIDS CARE-Cooperative Assistant for Relief Everywhere REFERENCE The rise and rise of NGOs – Peter Hall-Jones, Public Services International, May, 2006. NGOs the self appointed altruist – Sam Vakain, Ph. D – 2005 The role of Egypt C. S. O in Development & Reform – USEF Panel Discussion Notes, 2004. Categorizing NGOs; – World Bank Criteria. Towards an enabling legal environment for CSO – Sixteenth Annual John Hopkins International Fellows in Philanthropy Conference, Nairobi, Kenya. NGOs – Wikipeadia; the free encyclopedia. C. S. O & Democratic oversight of the security sector – Macina Caparini, DCAF, International Security Forum Zurich, 2002.